Module IV

• Streams & reservoir: Stream flow measurement, Measurement of

stage, measurement of velocity (current meter and float), direct
methods, indirect methods, rating curve and its extrapolation.
• Notches, weirs, control meters, Venture Flumes, Velocity area
method, slope area method, capacity elevation curve of river, Weir
and barrage
• Types of reservoirs, storage zones, catchment yield & reservoir yield,
reservoir capacity, mass curve of inflow and outflow, reservoir
sedimentations and losses
• Selection of site for a reservoir, economic height of dam, hydrological
reservoir routing-Trial & Error Method, Modified Pul’s method and
Goodrich Method.
Stream flow Measurement
• Stream flow representing the runoff
phase of the hydrologic cycle is the
most important basic data for
hydrological studies.
• A stream can be defined as a flow
channel into which the surface runoff
from a specified basin drains.
• Generally, there is considerable
exchange of water between a stream
and the underground water.
• Stream flow is measured in units of
discharge m3/s occurring at a
specified time, and the underground
water.
Measurement of Stage
1. Manual Gauges
A . Staff Gauge
• The simplest stage measurements involve checking water elevation against a
fixed graduated staff, which is made from durable materials resistant to
temperature and moisture expansion.
• Gauges are rigidly fixed to structures (like piers or walls) either vertically or
at an incline, featuring distinct, permanent markings that are easy to read
from a distance.
• When a stream's entire water-surface range cannot be covered by a single
staff, "sectional gauges" are constructed in multiple sections at different
locations.
• When installing sectional gauges, there must be a measurement overlap
between the different sections, and all must be referenced to the same
common datum.
B. Wire Gauge
• It is a gauge used to measure the water-
surface elevation from above the surface
such as from a bridge or similar
structure.
• In this, a weight is lowered by a reel to
touch the water surface.
• A mechanical counter measures the
rotation of the wheel, which is
proportional to the length of the wire
paid out.
• The operati,ng range of this kind of
gauge is about 25 m.
2. Automatic Stage Recorders
A. Float- Gauge Recorder
• A float-operated stage recorder is an
automatic device used to measure river
water levels over time.
• It works by placing a *float* inside a
protective *stilling well* connected to the
river.
• As the water level changes, the float moves
up or down, turning a pulley that shifts a
pen across a rotating, clock-driven drum.
• This creates a continuous graph of the
water’s height.
• To ensure accuracy, the well protects the
float from waves and debris. Because these
systems require sturdy, weather-proof
housing above flood zones, they are
reliable but can be expensive to install.
B. Bubble Gauge
• In this gauge, compressed air or gas is made to bleed out at a very small rate
through an outlet placed at the bottom of the river.
• A pressure gauge measures the gas pressure, which in turn is equal to the water
column above the outlet.
• A small change in the water-surface elevation is felt as a change in pressure
from the present value at the pressure gauge, and this in turn is adjusted by a
servo-mechanism to bring the gas to bleed at the original rate under the new
head.
Measurement of Velocity
• Stream velocity is measured accurately using a current meter, which uses a
rotating element. For a quick, approximate measurement, simple floats are
used to track water movement.
1. Current Meters
• The most commonly used instrument in hydrometry to measure the velocity at
a point in the flow cross-section is the current meter.
• It consists essentially of a rotating element which rotates due to the reaction of
the stream current with an angular velocity proportional to the stream velocity.
• There are 2 main types of current meters
1. Vertical-axis meter
2. Horizontal-axis meter
1. Vertical-axis Meter
• These instruments, including the Price and Gurley current meters, consist
of conical cups mounted on a vertical axis that rotate in a horizontal plane.
• They record signals proportional to their revolutions, functioning within a
velocity range of 0.15 to 4.0 m/s.
• Their accuracy is approximately 1.50% at lower speeds and improves to
about 0.30% at speeds above 1.0 m/s.
• A limitation of vertical-axis instruments is their ineffectiveness in measuring
vertical velocity components, as they may indicate a positive velocity when
lifted vertically in still water.
2. Horizontal-axis Meter
• These meters feature a propeller mounted on a horizontal rod to measure how
fast water is moving.
• They are available in sizes with diameters from 6 to 12 cm, capable of measuring
velocities between 0.15 and 4.0 m/s.
• Common types include Ott, Neyrtec, and Watt-type meters.
• They are robust, unaffected by oblique flows up to 15°, and have an accuracy of
approximately 1% at threshold values, improving to 0.25% for velocities of 0.3
m/s and above.
• The rotation speed of a current meter correlates linearly with stream velocity,
typically described by the equation v = a Ns + b.
V=Stream velocity at the instrument location in m/s
Ns = Revolutions per second of the meter
a,b =Constant of the meter
3. Calibration
• The relation between the stream velocity and revolutions per second of
the meter is called the calibration equation.
• The calibration equation is unique for each instrument and is determined
by towing the instrument in a special tank.
• A towing tank is a long channel containing still water with arrangements
for moving a carriage longitudinally over its surface at constant speed.
4. Field Use
2. Velocity Measurement by Floats
Streamflow measurement techniques can be broadly classified into two
categories as
1. Direct determination of stream discharge
a) Area-Velocity Methods
b) Dilution techniques
c) Electromagnetic Methods
d) Ultrasonic Method
2. Indirect determination of stream discharge
a) Hydraulic Structure, such as a weir, flumes, and gated structures
b) Slope-area Method
Direct determination of stream discharge
a) Area-Velocity Methods
• The area-velocity method is a
direct technique for
calculating stream
discharge(Q) by multiplying
the cross-sectional area (A)of
water by its average velocity
(V), Q=A X V
• It involves dividing the
stream's cross-section into
segments, measuring the area
(width x depth) and velocity in
each, and summing the
segmental discharges.
• Discharge Measurement
Moving Boat Method
• Discharge measurement of large alluvial rivers is very time-consuming by the
standard current meter even when the flow is low or moderate.
• During high flow, it is impossible to use the standard current meter technique
as it is difficult to keep the boat stationary.
In this method, the velocity over the width of a segment is measured using the
following mathematical formulations, The flow in the sub-area between two
verticals is
b) Dilution Techniques
• The dilution technique (or chemical method) of stream flow
measurement calculates discharge by injecting a tracer (salt, dye, or radioactive
material) into a stream and measuring its concentration change downstream.
Tracers
The tracers used are of 3 main types:
1. Chemicals (common salt and sodium dichromate are typical)
2. Fluorescent dyes (Rhodamine-WT and Sulpho-Rhodamine B Extra are typical)
3. Radioactive materials (such as Bromine-82, Sodium-24, and Iodine-132)
Length of reach
c) Electromagnetic Methods
• This method is based on Faraday’s
principle that an electromagnetic force
is induced in the water (conductor)
when it cuts a normal magnetic field.
• This method involves the use of
sophisticated and expensive instruments
and has been successfully implemented
in the field for discharge measurement.
d) Ultrasonic Method
The ultrasonic method of streamflow measurement calculates discharge by
measuring water velocity using ultrasonic sound pulses transmitted
between transducers on opposite riverbanks
Indirect determination of stream discharge
• Hydraulic Structure, such as a weir, flumes, and gated structures
a) Flow-Measuring Structure
The flow measurement structures there are different types of structures possible, and
the four major categories of these different structures are:
• Notches: The first one is the notches. Notches are basically can be of different
shapes, over which the water flows
• Weir
• Flumes: There are flumes are there, where we create some reduction in the flow
area; and through that using some mathematical formulation, we can calculate the
discharge.
Sluice gates: Sluice gates, which have been seen at different places at the field level
applications.
In the have laboratory, when we use it for the generation of this hydraulic jump to
study the hydraulic jump; this is the part below which the water comes out. And this is
a typical laboratory-scale setup sluice gate.
Notches Weir

Flumes Sluice gates

• The basic principle over which this kind of structure works on are that lies in the
ability to produce a unique control section.
• For such hydraulic structures, the discharge Q is a function of the water-surface
elevation measured at a specified upstream location.
• Here are different categories are there, for example, some thin plate structures
are there, weirs, flumes
• The thin plate structures are made from a vertical set of metal plates, e.g., v-
notch, contracted notch.
• The weirs are the barriers across the width of the river that alter the flow
characteristics in the streams.
• flumes, it is specifically engineered structures that are used to measure the flow
of the water in the open channels
b) Slope-Area Method
Given the water surface elevations at the
two sections, the discharge can be
evaluated by applying the energy equation
as follows,
 Rating curve and Its extrapolation
• Stage-discharge relation available at the site rarely includes the design-flood
range, it to get for some very extreme flow cases.
• There are two commonly used methods, one is the conveyance method other
one is the logarithmic-plot method.
Conveyance method

Where
Sf = The slope of the energy line
K = The conveyance can be calculated using manning's equation.
• And the slope is available stage-discharge is used to calculate this Sf and this
value is plotted against the graph and that graph is being extrapolated to find
out the value which is beyond the range when need to when the rating curve
was developed.
logarithmic-plot method
• The stage-discharge relation is plotted and a best-fit linear relationship is
obtained for data points lying in the high-stage range and the line is
extrapolated.
• Streams & reservoir: Stream flow measurement, Measurement of
stage, measurement of velocity (current meter and float), direct
methods, indirect methods, rating curve and its extrapolation.
• Notches, weirs, control meters, Venture Flumes, Velocity area
method, slope area method, capacity elevation curve of river, Weir
and barrage, types of reservoirs, storage zones, catchment yield &
reservoir yield
• Reservoir capacity, mass curve of inflow and outflow, reservoir
sedimentations and losses, Selection of site for a reservoir, economic
height of dam, hydrological reservoir routing-Trial & Error Method,
Modified Pul’s method, and Goodrich Method.
 Notches
• Notches are openings in tank or
channel sides used to measure
flow rates (discharge) by
measuring the upstream water
depth, typically categorized by
shape and edge contraction.
• The main types
are Rectangular, Triangular (V-
notch), Trapezoidal, and Stepped
notches, chosen based on
discharge volume and precision.
weirs
• A weir is a low-head, typically small
dam built across a river or stream to
alter flow characteristics, raise
upstream water levels, and manage
water flow.
• They are commonly used for flood
control, measuring flow rates, and
facilitating irrigation.
• Weirs work by letting water flow over
a top crest, differing from dams,
which often stop flow entirely.
Venture Flumes
• A Venturi flume is a specialized open-
channel flow measurement structure
consisting of a converging section, a
narrow "throat," and a diverging
section.
• It measures flow velocity and discharge
by reducing the cross-sectional area,
causing a drop in water depth (or
pressure), and is ideal for low-head loss
applications.
Barrage
• A barrage is a type of low-head,
diversion dam that consists of a
number of large gates that can
be opened or closed to control
the amount of water passing
through.
• This allows the structure to
regulate and stabilize river water
elevation upstream for use in
irrigation and other systems.
• The gates are set between
flanking piers which are
responsible for supporting the
water load of the pool created.
Differentiate Between Barrage and Weir
 Capacity Elevation Curve of River
• A capacity-elevation curve (or
storage-elevation curve) is a
graphical representation of the
relationship between a reservoir's
water surface elevation and its
corresponding storage volume.
• It is vital for calculating storage
capacity, reservoir routing, and
planning water use, generally
created using topographic maps or
bathymetric surveys.
Reservoir
• When a barrier is constructed across some river
in the form of a dam, water gets stored on the
upstream side of the barrier, forming a pool of
water, generally called a dam reservoir or an
impounding reservoir of a river.
• Depending upon the purpose served by a given
reservoir, the reservoirs may be broadly divided
into the following three types.
1. Storage or Conservation Reservoirs
2. Flood Control Reservoirs
(i) Storage reservoirs or Detention basins
(ii) Retarding basins or Retarding reservoirs
3. Multipurpose reservoir
4. Distribution reservoir
1. Storage or Conservation
Reservoirs
• Storage reservoirs are also called
conservation reservoirs because they
are used to conserve water.
• Storage reservoirs are constructed to
store the water in the rainy season and
to release it later when the river flow is
low
• Ex- Rybinsk Reservoir (Russia),
Qingcaosha Reservoir (China),
2. Flood Control Reservoirs
• Flood control reservoir, generally called a
flood-mitigation reservoir, stores a portion
of the flood flows in such a way as to
minimize the flood peaks at the areas to
be protected downstream.
• To accomplish this, the entire inflow
entering the reservoir is discharged till the
outflow reaches the safe capacity of the
channel downstream.
• The inflow in excess of this rate is stored in
the reservoir, which is then gradually
released, to recover the storage capacity
for the next flood.
• Ex-Hirakud Dam (Odisha), Sardar Sarovar
Dam (Gujarat)
i) Storage reservoirs or Detention
basins
• Store excess water during floods and
release it after the flood.
• It is similar to a storage reservoir but is
provided with large gated spillways and
sluiceways to permit flexibility of
operation.
ii) Retarding basins or Retarding
reservoirs
• A retarding reservoir is provided with
spillways and sluiceways, which are
ungated.
• The retarding reservoir stores a portion
of the flood when the flood is rising
and releases it later when the flood is
receding.
3. Multipurpose Reservoir
• A reservoir planned and
constructed to serve not only one
purpose but various purposes
together is called a multipurpose
reservoir.
• A reservoir designed to protect the
downstream areas from floods and
also to conserve water for water
supply, irrigation, industrial needs,
hydroelectric purposes, etc., shall
be called a multipurpose reservoir.
Ex-Govind Sagar reservoir, Nagarjuna
Sagar Dam (Telangana/Andhra Pradesh)
4. Distribution Reservoir
• A distribution reservoir is a small
storage reservoir to tide over the
peak demand of water for
municipal water supply or
irrigation.
• The distribution reservoir helps
permit the pumps to work at a
uniform rate. It stores water
during the period of lean demand
and supplies the same during the
period of high demand.
• Ex- Jawaharlal Nehru Road Water
Tower (Kolkata, West Bengal,
Vasant Kunj Underground
Reservoir (Delhi)
Storage zones
• Normal Pool Level or Maximum Conservation Level
• It is the maximum elevation to which the reservoir water surface will rise
during normal operating conditions. It is equivalent to the elevation of the
spillway crest or the top of the spillway gates, for most of the cases.
• Minimum Pool Level
• The lowest water surface elevation, which has to be kept under normal
operating conditions in a reservoir, is called the minimum pool level. This level
may be fixed by the elevation of the lowest outlet in the dam or may be guided
by the minimum head required for efficient functioning of turbines.
• Useful and Dead Storage
• The volume of water stored in a reservoir between the minimum pool and
normal pool levels is called the useful storage. Water stored in the reservoir
below the minimum pool level is known as the Dead Storage, and it is not of
much use in the operation of the reservoirs. The useful storage may be
subdivided into conservation storage and flood-mitigation storage, in a
multipurpose reservoir.
• Maximum Pool Level or Full Reservoir Level
• During high floods, water is discharged over the spillway, which will cause the
water level to rise in the reservoir above the normal pool level.
• The maximum level to which the water rises during the worst design flood is
known as the maximum pool level.
• Surcharge Storage
• The volume of water stored between the normal pool level and the maximum
pool level is called surcharge storage.
• Surcharge storage is an uncontrolled storage, in the sense that it exists only till
the flood is in progress and cannot be retained for later use.
• Bank Storage.
• When the reservoir is filled up, a certain amount of water seeps into the
permeable reservoir banks.
• This water comes out as soon as the reservoir gets depleted. This volume
of water is known as the bank storage, and may amount to several
percent of the reservoir volume depending upon the geological
formations.
• The bank storage effectively increases the capacity of the reservoir above
that indicated by the elevation capacity curve of the reservoir.
• Valley Storage
• Even before a dam is constructed, certain variable amount of water is
stored in the stream channel, called valley storage.
• After the reservoir is formed, the storage increases, and the actual
net increase in the storage is equal to the storage capacity of the
reservoir minus the natural valley storage.
• The valley storage thus reduces the effective storage capacity of a
reservoir. It is not of much importance in conservation reservoirs, but
the available storage for flood mitigation is reduced, as given by the
following relation:
• Effective storage for flood mitigation = Useful Storage + Surcharge
Storage Valley Storage corresponding to the rate of inflow in the
reservoir
Catchment yield & Reservoir yield
• Catchment yield is the total
volume of water (runoff)
generated from a watershed
and entering a reservoir, usually
measured over a year.
• Reservoir yield is the amount
of water withdrawn or supplied
by the reservoir over a specific
time, such as daily or monthly,
for uses like irrigation and
power.
• Streams & reservoir: Stream flow measurement, Measurement of
stage, measurement of velocity (current meter and float), direct
methods, indirect methods, rating curve and its extrapolation.
• Notches, weirs, control meters, Venture Flumes, Velocity area
method, slope area method, capacity elevation curve of river, Weir
and barrage, types of reservoirs, storage zones, catchment yield &
reservoir yield
• Reservoir capacity, mass curve of inflow and outflow, reservoir
sedimentations and losses, Selection of site for a reservoir, economic
height of dam, hydrological reservoir routing-Trial & Error Method,
Modified Pul’s method, and Goodrich Method.
Reservoir Capacity
• Depends upon the inflow available and demand.
• Inflow in the river is always greater. If the demand is less than the
demand, no storage is required.
• If the inflow in the river is small but the demand is high, a large reservoir
capacity is required.
• The required capacity for a reservoir can be determined by one of the
following methods:-
1) Graphical method, using mass curves
2) Analytical method
Mass curve of inflow and outflow
• A mass curve of inflow and outflow is a
plot of cumulative water volume
against time, used to determine
reservoir storage capacity.
• The mass inflow curve shows total
inflow, while the mass outflow
(demand) curve represents constant or
variable water usage.
• The maximum vertical intercept
between them represents the required
storage capacity.
Reservoir Sedimentations
• All rivers carry a certain amount of sediment, which is produced due to
erosion in their catchment areas.
• These sediments are deposited in the reservoir upstream of the dam because
of the reduction in velocity.
• Sedimentation reduces the available capacity of the reservoir.
• With continuous sedimentation, the useful life of the reservoir goes on
decreasing.
• If the soil in the catchment is loose and erodible, the sediment load is large.
• In case of catchments having steep slopes, the sediment load is large because
of the high velocity of water.
• If the catchment area has no vegetal cover, the soil is easily eroded, and the
sediment load is large.
• If the intensity of rainfall is high, the discharge in the river is increased, and
the sediment load is large.
Reservoir Losses
Following the seven major causes of losses of water from the reservoir
• Infiltration
• Seepage
• Evaporation from the water surface
• Watershed Leakage
• Interception
• Transpiration
• Soil Evaporation
Selection of Site for a Reservoir
• It is almost impossible to select a perfect ideal reservoir site. But its selection is
guided by the following factors:
1. A suitable dam site is available. The cost of the dam is generally a controlling
factor in the selection of a reservoir site.
2. The geological formations for the reservoir banks, walls, etc. should be such
as to entail minimum leakage.
3. The geology of the catchment area should be such as to entail minimum
water losses through absorption and percolation.
4. The site should be such that a deep reservoir is formed. A deep reservoir is
preferred to a shallow one, because of lower land cost per unit of capacity,
less evaporation loss, and less possibility of weed growth.
5. The reservoir site must have adequate capacity.
Economic Height of Dam
• The economic height of a dam is that height of the dam,
corresponding to which, the cost of the dam per unit of storage is
minimum.
• For this purpose, the estimates are prepared for construction costs,
for several heights of the dam.
• Somewhat above and below the level at which the elevation-
storage curve shows a fairly high rate of increase of storage per unit
rise of elevation, keeping the length of the dam moderate. The
construction cost is found to increase with the dam height.