GENIUS PHYSICS CLASSES
SALEM
9443256178
CBSE – PHYSICS
UNIT – VII
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
CHAPTER -11
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION
AND MATTER
1
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of metals, when radiation of suitable
frequency falls on them.
The emitted electrons are called photo-electrons and the current so produced is called photoelectric
current.
Different materials emit photoelectrons when they are exposed to radiations of suitable frequencies or
wavelengths. For example, alkali metals like lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium etc. Show photoelectric
effect with visible light, where as the metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium etc. Are sensitive only to
ultraviolet light.
HERTZ, HALLWACHS AND LENARD’S OBSERVTIONS ON PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT
[A] Hertz observations
The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, when he was
working with his electromagnetic wave experiment. Hertz while studying experimentally the production of
electromagnetic waves by means of spark discharge, found that the high voltage sparks across the detector
loop were enhanced when the emitter plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp. It was
accounted as follows :
When suitable radiation falls on a metal surface, some electrons near the surface absorb enough energy
from the incident radiations. Due to it, they are able to overcome the attraction of the positive ions in the
material of the surface and escape to the surrounding space.
[B] Hallwachs and Lenard’s Observations
Hallwachs and Lenard made a detailed study of photoelectric effect during 1886 to 1902.
Lenard observed that if a potential difference is applied across the two metal plates enclosed in an
evacuated tube no current flows in the circuit. When one plate (called emitter plate) enclosed in the
evacuated tube, kept at negative potential is exposed with ultraviolet radiations, current begins to flow. As
soon as ultraviolet radiations falling on the emitter plate are stopped, the current flow is also stopped. These
observations indicate that when ultraviolet radiations fall on emitter plate, electrons are ejected from it
which are attracted towards the other metal plate (called collector plate) kept at positive potential. The flow
of electrons through the evacuated glass tube results in the current flow in the external circuit. Thus, light
falling on the surface of emitter causes current in the external circuit. Hallwachs and Lenard studied
the variation of photoelectric current with collector with plate potential and with frequency and
intensity of incident light.
In 1888 Hallwachs connected a negatively charged zinc plate to gold-leaf electroscope and observed
that the zinc lost its charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet radiations. He also observed that
unchanged zinc plate became positively charged when it was exposed by ultraviolet radiations. The positive
charge on the positively charged zinc plate was further enhanced when it was more illuminated by
ultraviolet radiations. From these observations Hallwachs concluded that negatively radiations. From these
2
observations Hallwachs concluded that negatively charged particles were ejected out from the zinc plate
under the action of ultraviolet radiations.
After the discovery of electron in 1897, it became clear that the exposure of emitter plate with incident
light causes the electrons to be emitted. The emitted electrons (called photoelectrons) are accelerated
towards the collector plate under the effect of electric filed applied, Hallwachs and Lenard also observed
that there was no emission of electrons from the emitter plate if the emitter plate if the frequency of the
incident light was smaller than a certain minimum value, called threshold frequency.
Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of incident radiations required to emit the electrons
from an emitter (i.e., a metal surface ) without any kinetic energy.
Thus the photoelectric are emitted from an emitter if it exposed with the incident radiation of
frequency greater than threshold frequency. The value of threshold frequency depends on the nature of
material of the emitter plate.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The apparatus consists of an evacuated glass or quartz tube which encloses a photosensitive C (called
emitter) and a metal plate a (called collector). A transparent window W is sealed on to the glass tube which
can be covered with a filter for a light of particular radiation. This will allow the light of particular
wavelength to pass through it. The plate A can be given a desired positive or negative potential with respect
to plate C, using the arrangement as shown. Voltmeter (V) measures the potential difference between the
plates A and C, and micro ammeter (𝜇𝐴) measures the photoelectric current in the circuit.
When monochromatic radiations of suitable frequency obtained from source S, after being filtered
by a filter attached on the window W, fall on the photosensitive plate C, the photoelectrons are emitted from
C, which get accelerated towards the plate A (collector) if it is kept at positive potential. These electrons
flow in the outer circuit resulting in the photoelectric current. Due to it, the micro ammeter shows a
deflection. The reading of micro ammeter measures the photoelectric current.
If the potential of plate A is kept zero with respect to plate C, some of the emitted electrons get stuck
up in between C and A, constituting, what is known as space charge. The creation of space charge decreases
the probability of the emitted photoelectrons reaching the collector. Due to it, at V AC = 0, the photoelectric
current is small but not maximum.
3
This experimental arrangement can be used to study the variation of photoelectric current with (𝛼) the
intensity of the incident radiation, (b) the potential difference between the plates C and A, (c) the frequency
of the incident radiations, and (d) the nature of the material of the plate C.
(a) Effect of intensity of the incident radiation. Maintain the collector A at definite positive potential
w.r.t. to emitter C so that the electrons emitted from emitter are accelerated towards collector A.
Using the incident radiations of a fixed frequency and keeping the plate A at a fixed suitable
potential, note the photoelectric current from the reading of micro ammeter. Vary the intensity of the
incident of the incident radiation, keeping the radiations source at different distances w.r.t. to plate C
and note the resulting photoelectric current each time. It is found that the photoelectric current
caries linearly with the intensity of the incident radiation as shown. As the photoelectric current
is directly proportional to the number of photoelectric emitted per second, so the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident
radiation.
(b) Effect of potential of plate A w.r.t. to plate C. Keep the plate A at some accelerating positive
potential w.r.t. to plate C. Illuminate the plate C with radiations of fixed frequency v and fixed
intensity I1. Vary the positive potential of plate A gradually and note the photoelectric current each
time. It is found that the photoelectric current increases gradually with the increase in positive
potential of plate A. At one stage, for a certain positive potential of plate A, the photoelectric current
becomes maximum or saturates. After this, if we increase the positive potential of plate A, there will
be no increase in the photoelectric current. This maximum value of photoelectric current is called
saturation current. The saturation current corresponds to the state when all the photoelectrons emitted
from C reach the plate A.
Now apply a negative (retarding) potential on plate A w.r.t. to plate C, we will note that the
photoelectric current decreases. It is so because the photoelectrons emitted from C are repelled and
only energetic photoelectrons are reaching the plate A. Increase the negative potential of plate A
gradually, we will note that the photoelectric current decreases rapidly and becomes zero at a certain
value of negative potential V0, on plate A. At this stage even the fastest photoelectrons (i.e.,
photoelectrons of maximum kinetic energy, kmax) can not reach the plate A.
This minimum negative potential V0 , given to the plate A w.r.t. to plate C at which the
photoelectric current becomes zero is called stopping potential or cut off potential. It e is the
charge on the photoelectrons.
Then Kmax = Ev0 = mvmax2
Where m is the mass of photoelectron and Vmax is the maximum velocity of emitted
photoelectron.
4
The variation of the potential on plate A w.r.t. to plate C and photoelectric current is shown
by curve marked I1. Repeat the experiment with the radiation of same frequency but of higher
intensity I2 and I3, we note that the saturation current becomes more with the increase in the intensity
of the incident radiations but the value of stopping potential remains the same as that for radiations
of intensity I1.
From above we conclude the following:
(i) All the photoelectrons emitted from metal C are not having the same kinetic energy.
(ii) For the radiations of a given frequency and material of plate C, the value of stopping
potential is independent of the intensity of the incident radiation. It means, the maximum
kinetic energy of emitted photoelectric depends on the radiation source and nature of
material of plate C but is independent of the intensity of incident radiation.
(c) Effect of frequency of the incident radiation.
Take the radiation of different frequencies but of same intensity. For each radiation, study the
variation between photoelectric current and potential of plate A w.r.t. to plate C. We get the variation
of the type as shown. From the graph we note that
(i) the value of stopping potential is different for radiation of different frequency.
(ii) The value of stopping potential is more negative for radiation of higher incident
frequency.
(iii) The value of saturation current depends on the intensity of incident radiation but is
independent of the frequency of the incident eradiation.
(d) If we plot a graph between stopping potential and the frequency of the incident radiation for
two different metals A and B. We get graph shown.
From the graph we note that
(i) For a given photosensitive material, the stopping potential varies linearly with the
frequency of the incident radiation.
(ii) For a given photosensitive material, there is a certain minimum cut off frequency v0
(called threshold frequency) for which the stopping potential is zero.
5
(iii) The intercept on the potential axis = =−
Therefore, work function 𝜙 = e ×magnitude of intercept on the potential axis.
It means for a given photosensitive material, there is a certain incident radiation of
frequency v0 (threshold frequency) for which the emission of photoelectron is just possible,
but for the incident radiation of frequency less than threshold frequency, no emission of
photoelectron is possible, even if intensity is high.
From above experiments, it is found that, if the incident radiation is higher frequency than
that of threshold frequency, the photoelectric emission starts instantaneously, even if the
incident light is very dim. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and emission of
photo-electrons is less 10-9 second.
Laws of photo-electric emission
1. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the number of photoelectrons
ejected per second is second is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
2. For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of the incident radiation
below which no emission of photoelectrons takes place. This frequency is called threshold
frequency.
3. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron
is independent of the intensity of the incident light but depends only upon the frequency
(or wavelength) of the incident light.
4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag between the
incidence of radiations and emission of photoelectrons is very small, less than even 10 -9
second.
EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION ; ENERGY QUANTUM OF RADIATIONS
Work function of a metal is the minimum energy required by an electron to just escape from
the metal surface so as to overcome the restraining forces at the surface.
Einstein explained the various laws of photoelectric emission on the basis of Planck’s quantum
theory. According to Planck’s theory,
Light radiations consist of tiny packets of energy called quanta. One quantum of light radiation is
called a photon which travels with the speed of light.
The energy of a photon given by, E = hv
Where h is Planck’s constant and v is the frequency of light radiation.
6
Einstein assumed that one photoelectron is ejected from a metal surface if one photon opf suitable
frequency of radiation falls on it.
Consider a photon of radiation of frequency v, incident on a photosensitive metal surface. The energy
of the incident photon (= hv) is spent in two ways :
(i) A part of the energy of the photon is used in liberating the electron from from the metal surface
which is equal to the work function 𝜙 of the metal.
(ii) The rest of the energy of the photon is used in imparting the maximum kinetic energy Kmax to the
emitted photo electron.
If vmax is the max. Velocity of the emitted photoelectron and m is mass, then
Max. K.E. of the photoelectron, Kmax = mv2max
∴ hv = 𝜙 + mv2max or Kmax = mv2max = hv − 𝜙
This equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation. If the incident photon is of threshold
frequency v0. Then the incident photon of energy hv0 is just sufficient to eject the electron from the metal
surface without imparting it any kinetic energy, hence, hv0 must be equal to work function 𝜙 of the metal,
i.e. Hv = 𝜙
From eqn, mv2max = hv − hv0 = h (v − v0 ) Or Kmax = h (v − v0 )
Explanation of laws photoelectric emission.
(i) Since one incident photon may eject one photoelectron from a metal surface, therefore, number of
photoelectrons emitted per second depends upon the number of photons falling on the metal surface
per second which intern depends on the intensity of the incident radiation. If the intensity of the
incident radiation is increased, the number of incident photons increases, which results in an
increase in the number of photo-electrons ejected. This is the first law of photoelectric emission.
(ii) From (6), we note that if v > v0. Max.K.E. is negative, which is impossible. Hence, photoelectric
emission does not take place for the incident radiation below threshold frequency. This is the second
law of photoelectric emission.
(iii) From (6), we note that if v > v0. Max.K.E ∝ v. This means, maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectron depends on the frequency (or wavelength) of incident radiation. If the intensity of the
incident light radiation is increased, the number of incident photons falling per second on the metal
surface increases but the energy of each photon remains the same. This is the third law of
photoelectric emission.
(iv) The phenomenon of photoelectric emission has been conceived as an effect of an elastic collision
between a photon and an electron inside the metal. As a result of it, the absorption of energy by the
electron of metal from the incident photon is a single event which involves transfer of energy at once
without any time lag. Due to it, there is no time lag between the incident photon and the ejected
photoelectron. This is the fourth law of photoelectric emission.
Consequences of photoelectric emission
The photoelectric emission is possible only if the incident light is in the form of packets of energy, each
having a definite value, more than the work function of the metal. This shows that light is not of wave
7
nature but of particle nature. It is due to this reason that photoelectric emission was accounted by quantum
theory of light, i.e., particle nature of light.
RELATION BETWEEN CUT OFF POTENTIAL, FREQUENCY OF THE INCIDENT PHOTON
AND THRESHOLD FREQUENCY / WAVELENGTH
As already established, from Einstein’s photoelectric equation,
Max. Kinetic energy Kmax = hv − 𝜙
If V0 is the cut off potential or stopping potential and e is the charge on the electron, then
Kmax = eV0
If V0 is the threshold frequency, the work function
𝜙 = hv0
From eqns, we have
eV0 = Kmax = hv − hv0 = h (v − v0 )
if 𝜆 = wavelength of the incident radiation, 𝜆 = threshold wavelength for the metal surface,
c = velocity of light
Then, v= and v0 =
Putting values in (10)
eV0 = Kmax = h − or eV0 = Kmax = hc −
DETERMINATION OF PLANCK’S CONSTANT AND WORK FUNCTION OF A METAL
From Einstein’s photoelectric equation
Kmax = hv − 𝜙
If V0 is the cut off potential, then
Kmax = eV0 ∴ eV0 = hv − 𝜙 or V0 = −
8
This equation is similar to the equation of straight line, y = mx + C ; where m is the slope of straight line and
C is the intercept on y-axis. Therefore the graph between V0 and v is a straight line AB as shown.
Slope of this straight line, tan 𝜃 = = Or h = e × slope of V0 versus v graph
Thus the value of Planck’s constant can be determined.
From this graph, the intercept on V0 axis is
OC = − or |𝜙 | = 𝑒 × (OC)
This relation helps to determine the work function of metal.
IMPORTANT GRAPHS RELATED TO PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
(i) Frequency (v) and stopping potential (v0) graph
As eV0 = hv − 𝜙 or V0 = v − so V0 ∝ v
Therefore, v – V0 graph is a straight line shown. Comparing the above relatin with y = mx + C,
we note that the slope of v – V0 graph is h/e. The x – intercept, OA = v0 (threshold frequency) and y-
intercept, OC = − or |𝜙 | = 𝑒 × (OC)
Thus work function can be estimated.
Frequency (v) and stopping potential (V0) graphs for different materials will be represented by parallel
straight lines shown. It is so because, the slope of each straight line is h/e but the threshold frequency for
different materials is different.
(ii) Frequency (v) and maximum kinetic energy (Kmax) graph.
9
As, Kmax = hv − 𝜙 so, Kmax ∝ v
The v – Kmax graph is a straight line shown. Comparing the above relatin with y = mx + C, we note that the
slope of v – Kmax graph is h, x-intercept is v0 and y-intercept is − 𝜙
(iii) Frequency (v) and photoelectric current (I) graph.
This graph shows that the photoelectric current I is independent of frequency of the incident light,
till intensity remains constant.
(iv) Intensity and stopping potential (v0) graph.
This graph shows that the magnitude of the stopping potential is independent of the intensity of the
incident radiation, till the frequency of the incident radiation remains constant.
(v) Time (t) and photoelectric current (I) graph.
This graph shows that the photoelectric current attains the saturation value in 10 -9 s from the start
of radiation falling on photosensitive material, irrespective of the intensity of incident radiation.
PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT (the photon)
Photoelectric effect established the fact that light in interaction with matter behaves as if it was made
of quanta or packets of energy, each of energy hv, where h is Planck’s constant and v is the frequency of
light. Einstein’s also made an important conclusion that the light quantum can be associated with momentum
hv/c, where c is the velocity of light. A definite value of energy as well as momentum gives a strong
indication that the light quantum is a particle which was later named as ‘photon’. the particle like behaviour
of light was later on confirmed by the experiments of A.H. Compton, on scattering of X-rays from electrons.
The photon picture of electromagnetic radiations and the characteristic properties of photons are
given below:
(1) In interaction of radiation with matter radiation behaves as if it is made of particle like photon.
(2) Each photon has energy E (= hc/ 𝜆) and momentum p = = , where h is Planck’s constant, v and
𝜆 are the frequency and wavelength of radiation and c is the velocity of light.
(3) Irrespective of the intensity of radiation, all the photons of a particular frequency v or wavelength
𝜆 have the same energy E (=hv = hc/ 𝜆) and same momentum p = =
(4) By increasing the intensity of radiation of a given frequency or wavelength on a metal surface, there
is only increase in the number of photons per second falling on that surface, while each photon is
having the same energy. It show that the photon energy is independent of the intensity of radiation.
10
(5) All the photons emitted from a source of radiation travel through space woith the same speed c (
equal to the speed of light).
(6) The frequency of photon gives the radiation, a definite energy (or colour) which does not change
when photon travels through different media.
(7) The velocity of photon in different media is different which is duw to change in its wavelength
(8) The mass of a photon is zero. According to theory of relativity, the mass m of a particle moving with
velocity v, comparable with the velocity of light c is given by
𝑚= or 𝑚 =𝑚 1−𝑣2 𝐶
Where 𝑚 is the rest mass of particle. As a photon moves with the speed of light i.e., v = c, so from
(12). 𝑚 = 0. Hence photon has zero mass.
(9) Photons are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. This shows that photons are electrically
neutral.
(10) In a photon – particle collision (such as photo-electron collision), the energy and momentum are
conserved. However the number of photons may not be conserved in a collision. One photon may be
absorbed a new photon may be created.
(11) In n photons, each of frequency v are emitted per second from a source of light, then power of light
radiated out by the source of light is
Power = = = n hv
Where h is Planck’s constant.
FAILURE OF WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT TO EXPLAIN THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Huygen’s wave theory of light could not explain the photoelectric emissions due to the following
main reasons.
1. According to wave theory of light, the energy carried by a beam of light measured in terms of
intensity of the beam. If the intensity of the beam of light is increased, there will be increase in
amplitude of waves and hence energy carried by waves will increase. When beam of light falls on
a metal surface, the energy carried by light is distributed uniformly over the entire surface of
metal. All the free electrons present in the surface of metal will receive the light energy and they
will be ejected out of metal surface. When the waves of light of higher intensity falls on a metal
surface it will impart more energy to the electrons in metal. Due to it, the kinetic energy of the
ejected electrons will increase. This is against the experimental facts that the maximum kinetic
energy of the ejected photoelectric is independent of the intensity of incident light.
2. According to wave theory of light, the photoelectric emission is possible from a metal surface by
the waves of light of all frequencies, provided the intensity of light is sufficient to provide the
required energy to the electron for its emission. It means, by increasing the intensity of the
incident wave of light, the energy cane be increased and photo-electric emission will take place
even if the frequency of the incident light is less than threshold frequency. But it is against the
experimental fact that no photoelectric emission takes place from a metal surface if the
frequency of the incident light is less than the threshold frequency, no matter whatsoever
may be its intensity.
3. When the wave of light falls on a metal surface, the energy of the wave of light will not go to a
particular electron in metal but will be distributed to all the electrons present in the illuminated
11
portion of metal surface. As a result of it, the electrons will take sometime in accumulating the
energy required for their emission from metal surface. This is also against the experimental fact
that the emission of photoelectrons takes place immediately after the light is incident on the
metal surface.
PHOTOELECTRIC CELL
Photoelectric cell. It is a device which converts light energy into electrical energy. It is also
called an electric eye.
Photoelectric cell (also called photo tube) is shown.
It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz tube. Inside the tube, there is a semi-cylindrical photo-
sensitive metal plate C and a wire loop A which serve as cathode and anode respectively. The tube is
provided with insulating base on which metallic pins are projected. The elements inside the tube are
connected to these pins and though these pins, photocell is fitted into a socket and is connected to the
external circuit having a battery (B), and micro ammeter (𝜇𝐴), and a load resistance R in the circuit.
Working. When light of suitable frequency is allowed to fall on the cathode, photoelectrons are
emitted. These are attracted by anode which is kept at positive potential w.r.t. cathode. So a current
starts flowing in the circuit. Due to be amplified first before it is used for some useful purpose when
the light is cut off, no photoelectrons are ejected from the cathode and hence there is no current in the
external circuit.
Applications of photo electric cells.
1. Photoelectric cells are used in television camera for telecasting scenes and in photo telegraphy.
2. Photocells are used in counting devices, e.g., to count the persons entering the hall provided they
come one by one.
3. Photocells are used for the reproduction of sound recorded on films along with pictures in the
movie theatre.
4. Photocells are also used in burglar alarm and fire alarms.
5. Photocells are also used to measure the temperature of stars and to study the spectrum of the
heavenly bodies.
6. They are used to switch on and off the street lighting systems at dusk and dawn, without any
manual attention.
12
7. They are used to in photometry to compare the illuminating powers of two sources.
8. They are used to in industries for locating minor flaws or holes in metallic sheets.
9. They are used to as photoelectric sorters ; to sort out the materials of different shades.
10. They are used to determine the opacity of solids and liquids.
11. They are used to control the temperature and chemical reactions.
12. They are used for the determination of Plack’s constant.
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION
The phenomenon’s like interference, diffraction and polarisation of light were explained successfully
by considering that the radiation is of were nature. On the other hand the phenomenon likes, photoelectric
effect, Compton Effect etc. Could be explained on the basis of quantum nature of radiation, i.e., radiation is
of particle nature. For example, in photoelectric effect, when a single photon of radiation of sufficient
energy strikes a metal surface, it gives up all its energy to a single electron in an atom and the electron is
knocked out of the metal. The emitted electron carries part of the energy of incident photon. in Compton
effect when an X-ray photon is incident on a metal of light element, like aluminium, the free electron of the
metal recoils along a definite direction with some energy depending upon the direction along which the
incident photon is scattered. From above two effects, it is clear that a particle (photon of radiation) is coiling
against another particle (electron). It is due to this reason it was concluded that in photo electric effect and
Compton Effect, the radiation possesses particle nature.
it means radiation sometimes behaves as a sometimes as a particle, i.e., radiation has dual nature. It is
to be noted that in a particular experiment, the radiation has a particular nature, i.e., either it possesses wave
nature or particle nature.
The various phenomenon related to radiation can be divided into three categories.
1. There are the phenomenon like interference, diffraction and polarisation etc., which can be
explained on the basis of electromagnetic (wave) nature of radiation.
2. There are the phenomena like photo electric effect, Compton effect etc., which can be explained \on
the basis of quantum (particle) nature of radiation.
3. There are the phenomena like rectilinear propagation, reflection etc., which can be explained on the
basis of either of the wave nature or of the particle nature of radiation.
DE-BROGLIE DUALISTIC HYPOTHESIS
Dual nature matter. since radiation has dual nature, i.e., it possesses properties of both wave and
particle and universe is composed of radiation and matter, therefore de Broglie concluded that the moving
material particle must also possess dual nature, since nature loves symmetry.
De Broglie hypothesis. According to de-Broglie a moving material particle sometimes acts as a
wave and sometimes as a particle or a wave is associated with moving material particle which controls
13
the particle in every respect. The wave associated with moving material particle is called matter wave
or de-Broglie wave whose wavelength called de-Broglie wavelength, is given by
𝜆=
Where m and v are the mass and velocity of the particle and h is a Planck’s constant.
Derivation of de-Broglie wavelength.
According to Planck’s quantum theory, the energy of a photon of a radiation of frequency v and
wavelength 𝜆 is
𝐸 = ℎ𝑣
Where h is Planck’s constant. Is photon is considered to be a particle of mass m, the energy associated
with it, according to Einstein’s mass energy relation, is given by
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐
From eqns, we get ℎ𝑣 = 𝑚𝑐 or m=
Since each photon moves with the same velocity c, therefore, momentum of photon.
P = mass × velocity
P= ×c= = = Or 𝜆=
/
De-Broglie that the equation (16) be equally applicable to both the photons of radiation and other
material particles.
If a material particle of mass m, is moving with velocity v, then momentum of thge particle p = mv.
According to de-Broglie hypothesis. The wavelength of wave associated with the moving material particle is
𝜆= =
This is de-Broglie wave equation for material particle.
Conclusions from de-Broglie hypothesis
(i) From, 𝜆 ∝ ; it means if a material particle moves faster, the de-Broglie wavelength associated
with it is smaller and vice-versa.
(ii) From, 𝜆 ∝ 1/m ; it means for a heavier moving material particle, the de-broglie wavelength
associated with it is smaller and vice-versa.
(iii) If v = 0, from (17), 𝜆 = ∞ and if v = 0. It means the waves are associated with the material
particles only if they are in motion.
(iv) The de-Broglie waves associated with moving material particles are independent of charge and
nature of particle.
(v) The de-Broglie waves are not the electromagnetic waves because the electromagnetic waves are
produced by the motion of charged particle.
14
(vi) if a material particle is moving with a velocity v which is comparable to the velocity of light c,
them the mass m of moving material particle of rest m0 is given by
𝑚=
∕
∕
So de-Broglie wavelength associated with this particle is, 𝜆= =
(vii) Since the position of a wave cannot be located exactly, therefore, the wave of material particle
introduces the problem of particle location. It means the wavelength of a wave associated with
moving particle defines a region of uncertainly, within which the whereabouts of particle are
unknown. A schematic diagram of a de-Broglie wave is given.
(viii) De-Broglie wave hypothesis led Heisenberg to predict Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle which
states that it is impossible to measure both the position and momentum of a moving particle at a
time very accurately.
If Δ𝑥 ⋅ Δ𝑝 are the uncertainty in the determination of position and momentum of a moving
particle at a time, then according to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
Δ𝑥𝛥𝑝 =
Relation for de-Broglie wavelength and temperature
From kinetic theory of matter, the average kinetic energy of particle at a given temperature T Kelvin is
K = kT where k is Boltzmann constant.
If particle of mass m, moving with velocity v, then its kinetic energy is, K = mv3
Momentum of particle, p = mv = √2𝑚𝑘 = 2𝑚 × 𝑘𝑇 = √3𝑚𝑘𝑇
De-Broglie wavelength, 𝜆= =
√
DE-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF AN ELECTRON
Consider an electron of mass m and charge e. Let v be the velocity acquired by electron when
accelerated from rest through a potential difference of V volt. Then
15
Gain in kinetic energy of electron = mv2
Work done on electron = e V ∴ mv2 = e V or v=
If 𝜆 is the de-Broglie wavelength associated with the electron, then
𝜆= . = =
∕ √
Substituting the standard values in (18) we ge
. ×
𝜆 =
√ × × × . × ×
. .
= × 10 m= Å
√ √
For a moving electron the variation between 𝜆 and V (or 𝜆 and kinetic energy K) is shown.
Importance of wave properties of electrons
The wave nature of electron has been utilised in the working of an electron microscope, which has a very
high resolving power than that of optical microsppcope.
16