Module 1: Introduction to Fluid Machineries

Introduction
• Substances may be classified by their response when at
rest to the imposition of a shear force.
𝐹𝑠
• Shear stress is defined by 𝜏 = 𝐴𝑠
.

• Ideal or elastic solid will resist the shear force, and its rate of
deformation will be zero regardless of loading.
• Plastic will resist the shear until its yield stress is attained, and the
application of additional loading will cause it to deform continuously, or
flow.
• Ideal plastic if deformation rate is directly proportional to the flow.
• Fluid if the substance is unable to resist even the slightest amount
of shear without flowing.
• Ideal Fluid has no internal friction, and hence its deformation rate
coincides with the abscissa

• Liquid except at very high pressures and/or temperatures may be considered

incompressible.
• Gases and vapors are compressible fluids, but only ideal gases (those that follow the
ideal-gas laws) are considered in this section.
Fluid Properties
• Density (ρ) r of a fluid is its mass per unit volume. (dimension M/L3)
Note: Density of a fluid changes as the temperature changes.
• Specific volume (v) of a fluid is its volume per unit mass. (dimension L3/M)
Note:
1. specific volume is denoted by the inverse product of the density and
1
proportionality constant 𝑣 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑐
𝑅𝑇
2. For ideal gases it may be computed as 𝑣 = 𝑃 , whereas R is the gas constant
of the fluid
• Specific Weight (γ) of a fluid is its weight per unit volume. (dimension F/L3 or M/L2T2)
Note: Specific weight is related to density by 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔, whereas g is the gravitational
acceleration
• Specific gravity (sp. gr.) of a substance is a dimensionless ratio of the density of a fluid
to that of a reference fluid. Water is used as the reference fluid for solids and liquids, and
air is used for gases.
Note:
1. Since the density of liquids changes with temperature for a precise definition
of specific gravity, the temperature of the fluid and the reference fluid should
be stated. If no temperatures are stated, reference is made to water at its
maximum density, which occurs at 3.98°C and atmospheric pressure. The
maximum density of water is 1.9403 slugs/ft3 (999.973 kg/m3).
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑝. 𝑔𝑟. =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
2. For gases, it is common practice to use the ratio of the molecular weight of the
gas to that of air (28.9644), thus eliminating the necessity of stating the
pressure and temperature for ideal gases.
𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑀𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
=
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟
• Bulk modulus of elasticity (E) of a fluid is the ratio of the pressure stress to the
volumetric strain. (dimension F/L2)
Note:
𝜕𝑃
1. E depends on the thermodynamic process. 𝐸𝑥 = −𝑣 (𝜕𝑣 )𝑥 , whereas x is the
process.
2. For isothermal process 𝐸𝑇 = 𝑃 (can be derived from pv = constant)
3. For isentropic process 𝐸𝑠 = 𝑘𝑃, whereas k is the ratio of specific heat (can be
derived from pvk = constant)
• Acoustic Velocity, velocity of sound in a fluid, is given by; (dimension L/T)
𝐸 𝑘𝑃
c = √ 𝜌𝑠 = √ 𝜌 = √𝑘𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑣 = √𝑘𝑔𝑐 𝑅𝑇
• Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to shear motion - its internal friction.
- Dynamic viscosity (μ) of a fluid is the ratio of the shearing stress to the rate
of deformation. (dimension FT/L2 or M/LT or centipoise)
𝜏
𝜇=
𝑑𝑈
𝑑𝑦
- Kinematic viscosity (μk) of a fluid is its dynamic viscosity divided by its
density. (dimension L2/T or centistoke)
𝜇
𝜇𝑘 =
𝜌
Note:
1. dynamic viscosity of gases is primarily a temperature function and essentially
independent of pressure.
• Surface tension (σ) of a fluid is the work done in extending the surface of a liquid one
unit of area or work per unit area. (dimension F/L)
2𝛔
- Droplet surface tension 𝛥𝑃 = 𝑟
2𝛔𝐜𝐨𝐬𝚯
- Capillary Tubing 𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔𝑟

• Capillary action is due to surface tension

- Cohesion of the liquid molecules
- Adhesion of the molecules on the surface of a solid

• Vapor Pressure of a fluid is the pressure at which its liquid and vapor are in equilibrium
at a given temperature.
Fluid Statics
• Pressure (P) is the force per unit area exerted on or by a fluid. (dimensions F/L2)

Note:
1. Pascal's principle states that pressure in a static fluid is the same in all directions.
2. Basic equation of fluid statics is obtained by consideration of a fluid particle at rest with
respect to other fluid particles, all being subjected to body-force accelerations of ax,
ay, and az opposite the directions of x, y, and z, respectively, and the acceleration of
gravity in the z direction, resulting in the following:
𝑑𝑃 = 𝜌[𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + (𝑎𝑧 + 𝑔)𝑑𝑧]
• Pressure-Height Relations for a fluid at rest and subject only to the gravitational force.
- Liquid (incompressible)
𝑑𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 𝛾𝑑𝑧
- Ideal Gases (compressible) it is necessary to consider the variation of gravity
with altitude. For this purpose, the geopotential altitude (H) is used, defined
by;
𝑧
𝐻= 𝑧
1+
𝑟
(r is the radius of earth 21x106 ft or 6.4x106 m & z is height from sea level)
- Isentropic Eq. for Pressure-Height Relations
𝐻2 −𝐻1
𝑃 = 𝑃1 𝑒 − 𝑅𝑇
- Polytropic Eq. for Pressure-Height Relations
(𝑛 − 1)(𝐻2 − 𝐻1 ) 𝑛
𝑃 = 𝑃1 [1 − ]𝑛−1
𝑛𝑅𝑇1
- Polytropic Eq. for Temperature-Height Relations
(𝑛−1)(𝐻2 −𝐻1 )
T= 𝑛𝑅
+ 𝑇1
Additional for Fluid Statics
• Liquid Forces is the force exerted by a liquid on a plane submerged surface
𝐹
𝑃 = 𝐴 = 𝛾ℎ thus F = γhA
- For Vertically submerged object
𝐼𝑔 (sin 𝛩)2
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑐 +
ℎ𝑐 𝐴
- For Inclined submerged object
𝐼𝑔
𝑠𝑓 = 𝑠𝑐 +
𝑠𝑐 𝐴

• Buoyancy Archimedes' principle states that a body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a

force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. If an object immersed in a fluid is heavier
than the fluid displaced, it will sink to the bottom, and if lighter, it will rise.

FD = FB – Fg = (γB – γg)V
Fluid Dynamics
• Bernoulli’s Equation
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑓
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Each term of the equation is in feet and is equivalent to the height the fluid would rise in
tube if its energy were converted into potential energy. For this reason, in hydraulic
𝑃
practice, each type of energy is referred to as a head. The static pressure head is 𝛾1 . The
𝑣1 2
velocity head is 2𝑔
, and the potential head is z. The energy loss between sections ℎ𝑓 is
called the lost head or friction head.
 Module 2: Dimensional Analysis as applied to fluid machineries

Modern engineering practice is based on a combination of theoretical analysis and experimental

data. Often the engineer is faced with the necessity of obtaining practical results in situations
where for various reasons, physical phenomena cannot be described mathematically, and
experimental data must be considered. The generation and use of dimensionless parameters
provides a powerful and useful tool in:
1. Reducing the number of variables required for an experimental program
2. Establishing the principles of model design and testing
3. Developing equation
4. Converting data from one system of units to another.
Methods used in Dimensional Analysis
1. Physical equation
2. Similarity
3. Dimensional analysis

Example #1:
It is desired to generate a series of dimensionless parameters to describe the ratios of static
pressure head, velocity head, and potential head to total head for frictionless incompressible ¯ow.
From the Bernoulli equation,
𝑃 𝑣2
+ + 𝑧 = ∑ ℎ = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃 𝑣2 𝑃 𝑣2
+
𝛾 2𝑔 + 𝑧 2𝑔 𝑧
𝛾
𝑁1 = = + + = 𝑁𝑝 + 𝑁𝑣 + 𝑁𝑧
∑ℎ ∑ℎ ∑ℎ ∑ℎ
• Models versus Prototypes
➢ The equipment being tested is called a model, and the equipment whose
performance is to be predicted is called a prototype.
• Similarity Requirements
➢ For complete similarity between a model and its prototype, it is necessary to have
geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity.
- Geometric Similarity
Exists between model and prototype when the ratios of all corresponding
dimensions of the model and prototype are equal.
 - Kinematic Similarity
Exists between model and prototype when their streamlines are geometrically
similar.

- Dynamic Similarity
Exists between model and prototype having geometric and kinematic similarity
when the ratios of all forces are the same.

• Dimensional Analysis
Is the mathematics of dimensions and quantities and provides procedural techniques
whereby the variables that are assumed to be significant in a problem can be formed into
 dimensionless parameters, the number of parameters being less than the number of
variables. This is a great advantage, because fewer experimental runs are then required
to establish a relationship between the parameters than between the variables. Two
systems are used, the force (FLT) and the mass (MLT). Two formal methods of
dimensional analysis are used.
1. Lord Rayleigh – not generally used for more than four variables
2. Buckingham's II theorem

• Steps in Lord Rayleigh

1. Write a functional relationship of the variables
2. Write a dimensional equation in either FLT or MLT system
3. Solve the dimensional equation for exponents
4. Insert exponents in the functional equation:

• Steps in Buckingham's II theorem

1. List all the physical variables considered according to type: geometric, kinematic, or
dynamic.
2. Choose either the FLT or MLT system of dimensions.
3. Select a ``basic group'' of variables characteristic of the flow
a. BG, a geometric variable
b. BK, a kinematic variable
c. BD, a dynamic variable (if three dimensions are used)
4. Assign A numbers to the remaining variables starting with A1
5. Write the basic equation for each π ratio
6. Write the dimensional equations and use the algebraic method to determine
7. the value of exponents x, y, and z for each p ratio. Note that for all π ratios, the sum
of the exponents of a given dimension is zero.
8. Convert π ratios to conventional practice.

• Dynamic Similitude
Many practical problems exist, however, and it is not always possible to achieve complete
dynamic similarity. When viscous forces govern the flow, the Reynolds number should be
the same for model and prototype, the length in the Reynolds number being some
characteristic length. When gravity forces govern the flow, the Froude number should be
the same. When surface tension forces are significant, the weber number is used. For
compressible gas flow, the Mach number is used.

Sample Problem
A prototype centrifugal pump has an impeller diameter of 𝐷𝑝 = 0.6 m, rotates at a speed
of 𝑁𝑝 = 1200 rpm, delivers a flow rate of 𝑄𝑝 = 0.25 m3 /s, and produces a pump head of
𝐻𝑝 = 30 m. The working fluid is water with a kinematic viscosity of 𝜈 = 1 × 10−6 m2 /s.
A geometrically similar model of the pump is constructed with an impeller diameter of 𝐷𝑚 =
0.3 m.
Tasks:
1. Determine the rotational speed 𝑁𝑚 of the model required to maintain Froude similarity.
2. Using affinity laws, calculate the model flow rate 𝑄𝑚 and pump head 𝐻𝑚 .
3. Compute the Reynolds numbers for both the prototype and the model, and discuss
the potential impact of viscous effects on the model scaling
 Module 3: Specific speed of Fluid Machineries
Pump Performance
The performance of a centrifugal pump is generally described in terms of the following of its
characteristics:
1. Rate of flow or capacity (Q)
2. Increase of energy content in the fluid pumped or head (H)
3. Input Power (P)
4. Efficiency (ղ)
5. Rotative Speed (N)
Since the parameters indicated are all mutually
interdependent, it is customary to represent the
performance of a centrifugal pump by means of
characteristic curves. For any given capacity on such a
characteristic curve, the relationship between performance
characteristics is ex-pressed by the equation
𝛾𝑄𝐻
(IP) ղ =
3960𝑃
𝛾𝑄𝐻
(SI) ղ =
270𝑃

Values of Specific Speed

𝑁√𝑄
Pumps: 𝑁𝑠 = 3
𝐻4

𝑁√𝑃
Turbines: 𝑁𝑠 = 5
𝐻4

The specific speed formula in fluid

machinery is a dimensionless
parameter that helps engineers
characterize and select pumps,
turbines, and other fluid machines
based on their rotational speed, flow
rate, and head. Its main purpose is
to provide a basis for comparing
different machines and predicting
the most efficient type of machine
for a given application.
It must be remembered that these
efficiencies are attainable at the
capacity at best efficiency. The
actual specified capacity may differ
from this best-efficiency flow. In
addition, the general shape of the
pump-characteristic curves will vary widely from one end of this range to the other.

Specific speed is of interest to both the pump designer and the pump user essentially in two
ways:
1. All geometrically similar pumps, regardless of their size, will have identical specific
speeds.
2. Within reasonable limits, pump geometry and performance can be predicted as a
function of Ns and Q.

Sample Problems:
1. A water supply system requires a pump to deliver 0.05 m³/s of water at a head of 30 m.
The pump runs at 1450 rpm. Determine the specific speed of the pump and suggest
the type of pump suitable.
2. A hydroelectric site has a net head of 50 m and needs a turbine delivering 500 kW at
300 rpm. Determine the specific speed of the turbine and suggest the type.
 Module 4: Pump and Fans

Displacement Pumps
Also called positive displacement pumps, is a pump which imparts energy to the pumpage (the
material pumped) by trapping a fixed volume at suction (inlet) conditions, compressing it to
discharge pressure, then pushing it into the discharge (outlet) line. A displacement pump does
not rely on velocity to achieve pumping action, as does a centrifugal pump or ejector.

Displacement pumps achieve high pressures with low pumpage velocities, they are well-suited
for abrasive-slurry and high-viscosity services.

Centrifugal and axial Flow Pump

In a centrifugal pump the liquid is forced,
by atmospheric or other pressure, into a
set of rotating vanes which constitute an
impeller discharging the liquid at a higher
pressure and a higher velocity at its
periphery. The major portion of the
velocity energy is then converted into
pressure energy by means of a volute or
by a set of stationary diffusion vanes
surrounding the impeller periphery.
Typical Components of Positive Displacement Pumps

Typical Components of Centrifugal Pumps

Determination of Fluid Head Requirements

The fluid head is calculated using both the Bernoulli and Darcy-Weisbach equation from fluid
mechanics.
Bernoulli equation represents the total mechanical (nonthermal) energy content of the fluid at
any location in the system
𝑃1 𝑣1 2
𝐸𝑡 = + + 𝑧1
𝛾 2𝑔
Darcy-Weisbach equation expresses the loss of mechanical energy from a fluid through friction
heating between any two locations in the system.
𝑓𝐿 𝑇 𝑣 2
ℎ𝑙 =
2𝑔𝐷
Moody chart

Example Problem
A piping system is designed to provide 2.0 m3/sec of water to a discharge header at a pressure
of 200 kPa. Water Temperature is 20°C. Water viscosity is 0.0013 Nsec/m2. Water suction is from
reservoir at atmospheric. The level of water in the reservoir is assumed to be at elevation 0m.
The pump will be located at elevation 1.0m. The discharge header is at elevation 50m.
Piping from the reservoir to the pump suction flange consist of the following:
1. 20m length of an internal diameter 100mm steel pipe
2. Three 90 degree elbows
3. Two Gate valve
4. One Check valve
5. One strainer
Piping from the pump discharge flanged to the discharge header inlet flange consist of the
following:
1. 100m length of an internal diameter of 100mm steek pipe
2. Four 90 degree elbows
 3. One gate valve
4. One check valve
Use the given table2/2/2026

Determine the Total Developed Head required for the Pump

Total Developed Head of a Fan

Fan head is commonly expressed in terms of a height of water instead height of the gas being
moved, since water manometers are used to measure gas pressure at the inlet and outlet of a
fan.
𝜌𝑔
𝐻𝑤 = 𝐻𝑔 ( )
𝜌𝑤
Example Problem
If the required of a fan is found to be 100m of air, he air density is 1.21 kg/m3 and the water density
in the manometer is 1000 kg/m3, then the developed head, in terms of the column of water is?

Engineering data for pressure loss

Net Positive Suction Head
The liquid static pressure at the suction of both positive displacement and centrifugal pumps must
be higher than the liquid’s vapor pressure to prevent vaporization at the inlet which is called
cavitation. Cavitation is caused by a drop in developed head, in severe case, a complete loss of
flow. It also causes pitting of the impeller that, in time and if severe enough, can destroy the
impeller.
Net positive suction head (NPSH) is the difference between the static pressure and the vapor
pressure of the liquid at the pump inlet flanged.
𝑃𝑠 −𝑃𝑣
NPSH =
𝜌𝑔

There are two NPSHs that a system designer must consider. One is the NPSHa or NPSH
available, which is dependent on the design of the piping system. Second is the NPSHr or NPSH
required by the pump selected for the service. The task of the system designer is to ensure that
NPSHa exceed the NPSHr
𝑃𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑃𝑣
NPSHa = 𝜌𝑔
± 𝑃𝑠 ± 𝑧 − ℎ𝑓 − 𝜌𝑔

Note: a good 1 NPSH margin is a good indication (NPSHa – NPSHr)

Example Problem
A centrifugal pump is required to transfer water at 25 °C from an open sump to an elevated tank.
The pump centerline is 3 m above the water level in the sump.
The suction pipe friction loss is 1.2 m.
From the manufacturer’s catalog, a candidate pump has an NPSH required (NPSHr) of 3.0 m at
the operating flow rate.
Determine:
1. The NPSH available (NPSHa)
2. Whether the pump selection is safe against cavitation

Selection of Centrifugal Pump

The pump selected for a fluid system must deliver the
specified flow and required head at or near the pump's
maximum efficiency, and have a NPSHR less than the
NPSHA.
Example
Flow: 7200 m3/hr
Head: 60.6 m
NPSHa: 28.9 ft
Fan Selection
Fans, the same as pumps, are made in a large variety of types in order to serve a large variety of
applications. Characteristics of fans are similar to those of centrifugal pumps: they must be
carefully matched to their system in order to achieve their best efficiencies; the basic modeling
laws are used to predict their performance; clearances between the wheel tip and casing (cutoff)
are not critical; their discharge ducts can be closed without causing high heads to develop; their
flow is smooth; they can be used on gases and gas-particle mixtures (powders, dusts, lints); and
their maintenance costs are low.
The steps to follow in fan selection are the same as those for pump selection with two exceptions:
1. There is no net positive suction head to be concerned with
2. A variety of speeds are usually available for each fan through the use of different size
sheaves (using belt drives)
Pipe Sizing
Pipe sizes are specified by nominal diameters, and the wall thickness by schedule number. The
three schedules (or wall thicknesses) used in hydraulic piping are 40, 80, and 160, corresponding
to standard pipe, extra heavy, and a little less than double extra heavy.
In the selection of piping for hydraulic circuits, the following are suggested:
1. Suction lines to pumps should not carry fluid at velocities in excess of 1.5 m/sec in order
to reduce the possibility of cavitation at the pump inlet.
2. Delivery lines should not carry fluid at velocities in excess of 4.5 m/sec in order to prevent
excessive shock loads in the pipework due to valve closure. Pressure loss due to friction
in pipes should be limited to approximately 5% of the supply pressure and the
recommendation also keeps heat generation to a reasonable level.
3. Return lines should be of larger diameter than delivery lines to avoid back pressure
buildup.
 Module 5: Turbines
Turbines are classified descriptively in various ways:
1. By supply and exhaust conditions
2. By casing or shaft arrangement
3. By number of exhaust stages in parallel
4. By details of stage design (impulse or reaction)
5. By direction of flow in the turbine (axial flow, radial flow, or tangential flow)
6. Whether single-stage or multistage
7. By type of driven apparatus
Turbine Stage Design
A turbine stage consists of a stationary set of blades, often called nozzles, and a moving set
adjacent thereto, called buckets, or rotor blades.
In the impulse (Pelton) stage, the total pressure drop for the stage is taken across the nozzles or
stationary element, the flow through the buckets or rotor blades then being substantially at
constant static pressure. This may be extended to include flow through an additional set of
stationary ``inter-mediate'' blades and another row of buckets, or rotor blades (Curtis or two row

stages).
In the reaction (Kaplan & Francis) stage, the total pressure drop assigned to the stage is divided
equally between the stationary blades and the rotor blades, giving rise to a velocity diagram. As
can be seen, there arises a marked difference in the shapes of the rotor blades in the two classical
designs; the impulse buckets do much more turning of the stream; the reaction-bucket shape is
more nearly the same as the nozzle-blade shape.
Types of Reaction Turbine
1. Francis Reaction Turbine
2. Propeller (Kaplan) Reaction Turbine

In the guide case of the impulse turbine, the static head is completely transformed into velocity,
so that air surrounds both the jet issuing from the nozzle and the runner.
In the guide case of the reaction types, the static head is only partly transformed into velocity,
leaving an overpressure between the guide case and the runner. This overpressure causes an
acceleration of the relative velocity of the water passing through the runner, the discharge area
of which is smaller than the entrance area. Except when operating vented at low loads, the water
passages are completely filled with water from the intake to the end of the draft tube.

Specific Speed Turbine

𝑁√𝑃
Turbines: 𝑁𝑠 = 5
𝐻4
Example Problem
1. A hydroelectric plant operates under a net head of 350 m and produces 8 MW at a
rotational speed of 500 rpm. Determine the specific speed and identify the appropriate
turbine type.
2. A hydroelectric station has a net head of 60 m and generates 5 MW at a speed of 300
rpm. Determine the specific speed and select the turbine type.
3. A low-head hydroelectric plant operates under a head of 8 m and produces 3 MW at a
speed of 150 rpm. Determine the specific speed and recommend a turbine type.
Speed Selection
Hydraulic turbines are usually connected to ac generators. The turbine speed must agree with
one of the synchronous speeds required for the system frequency.
𝑓
𝑁 = 120 𝑥
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
Example Problem
A hydroelectric power plant in the Philippines is to be connected directly to the national grid.
The generator produces 13.8 kV, 3-phase AC power synchronized to the grid.
Given that:
• Philippine grid frequency = 60 Hz
• The generator is a synchronous generator
• The turbine is directly coupled to the generator
Determine:
1. The possible synchronous speeds of the turbine
2. The most suitable turbine speed if a Francis turbine is to be used
3. The number of poles of the generator

Turbine fundamental formula

𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑄𝜌
Imperial: 𝑃 = 𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑡 = (horsepower)
550
𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑄𝜌
Imperial: 𝑃 = 𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑡 = 101.93
(kilowatts)
 Module 6: Applications of Fluid Machineries
Pumping System
The piping and equipment through which the liquid flows to and from the pump constitute the
pumping system. Only the length of the piping containing liquid controlled by the action of the
pump is considered part of the system.

Pump sizing Procedure

1. Qd = total design capacity, gpm (m3/h)
2. Pd = design pressure at system header outlet, lb/in2 (kPa)
3. Ps = minimum available pressure at suction header inlet, lb/in2 (kPa)
4. Q1, Q2, Q3 = design capacity of individual pumps, gpm (m3/h)
Water-distribution systems that serve populated areas and industrial complexes, including
offices and light and heavy industry, are classified broadly as being of the loop, gridiron, or tree
types.
1. In the loop system, large feeder mains that surround areas many city blocks square
serve smaller cross-feed lines connected at each end into the main loop.
2. In the gridiron (or grid) system, the piping is laid out in checkerboard fashion, with piping
usually decreasing in size as the distance increases from the source of supply.
3. In the tree system, there is a single trunk main, reducing in size with increasing distance
from its source of supply; branch lines are supplied from the trunk.