Topic 2: Evolution by Natural Selection
• Textbook Chapter 22
• Learning outcomes:
• Summarize the evidence supporting evolution (the pattern)
• Identify the conditions required for the process of natural selection to occur
• Characterize different types of adaptations and explain why they are adaptive
• Counter common misconceptions about evolution by natural selection
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What is evolution?
1. Species change through time, through natural selection and other processes
2. Species are related by common ancestry
A sketch from
Charles Darwin was the ship’s naturalist Darwin’s
on the 5-year journey of the H. M. S. notebook, 1837,
Beagle (1831-1836). His observations of illustrating his
organisms and fossils shaped his ideas idea of common
about evolution, published in “On the ancestry
Origin of Species” in 1859.
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Changing ideas about the diversity of life
Organisms change over
Every organism is Unchanging types Organisms change
time; variation within
perfect, are on a hierarchy of over time, become
populations is acted
unchanging value, complexity more complex
upon by selection
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Evidence of change through time:
Geological time is vast
• Sedimentary rock layers formed by
erosion and deposition. Fossils can
be deposited in some layers
• The order of layers gives relative
ages. Absolute ages can be
determined with radiometric dating.
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From Evolution 101 out of Berkeley
Evidence of change through time:
Extinction changes species composition
• Discovery of fossils of large “I was much struck with certain facts in
animals proved extinction the distribution of the inhabitants of
occurred (Fig. 22.3) South America, and in the geological
• Darwin also noticed the relations of the present to the past
biogeography of fossils: that inhabitants of that continent.”
Darwin, from the intro
modern organisms resembled to the Origin
fossils found in the same area
Pygmy Wombat
armadillo
Glyptodon Diprotodon
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Evidence of change through time:
Transitional features
Transitional feature = trait in a fossil species that is intermediate between
ancestral and derived species
Fossils similar to present-day fish
and four-legged animals
(tetrapods) have fin and limb
bones with transitional features
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Fig 22.4
Evidence of change through time:
Remnants of previous traits
A vestigial trait is a reduced or incompletely developed structure that has no
(or reduced) function, but is similar to functioning structures in ancestral or
closely related species.
Eocene whale (Dorudon)
with vestigial legs
Petals vestigial on grass flower (left)
Humans: tailbone, arrector pili on hairs 7
Evidence of change through time:
Contemporary evolution
Numerous examples of evolution in populations as a response to changes in
the environment
Evolution of antibiotic resistance in Evolution of climbing behaviour and larger
the bacterium that causes toe pads in green anoles, after introduction
tuberculosis (see section 22.4) of invasive brown anoles (see news story)
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Evidence of common ancestry:
Similar species share biogeography
• Darwin noticed similarity
among mockingbirds on
the Galapagos islands
• DNA analysis confirms
birds are related; a
common ancestor
colonized the islands,
then spread and
diversified
“The Thenca [mockingbirds] very
tame & curious in these Islds. I
certainly recognise S. America in
ornithology.”
--from Darwin’s notebook
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Evidence of common ancestry:
Different species can share some traits See also Table 22.1
Homology: a similarity among different species due to shared ancestry
Genetic Developmental Structural
Similarity in DNA, RNA, Similarity in embryonic form or Similarity in adult organismal
or amino acid sequences developmental processes structures (midveins modified
(hemoglobin) (tails and pharyngeal pouches) to tendrils or traps)
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Evidence of common ancestry:
New species still forming
Stick Insects Monkeyflowers Sparrows
Body colour and pattern A new species (Erythranthe DNA evidence suggests the
varies with host plant use peregrina) arose after a whole- Italian sparrow may be a new
in Timema. They may be genome duplication that species formed by
undergoing sympatric prevents interbreeding with hybridization between house
speciation. plants that do not have the sparrows and Spanish
duplication. Sparrows.
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The importance of independent data sets
• Cetaceans (Whales and
dolphins) are aquatic
mammals that evolved
from a terrestrial
ancestor
• Evidence of descent with
modification from a
common ancestor
includes:
• Transitional forms
• Vestigial hips and
hindlimbs
• Relative and absolute
dating of fossils and
surrounding rock
• Phylogenetic tree of living
cetaceans
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Summary of evidence for evolution
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Natural selection as a major mechanism of evolution
Natural Selection is the process where individuals with certain heritable traits
produce more surviving offspring than individuals without those traits, leading
to a change in the allele frequencies in the population.
Darwin’s Four Postulates for evolution by natural selection
1. Trait Variation 2. Heritability 3. Fitness Variation 4. Selection
Variation exists among Trait differences are Survival and Variation in survival
individual organisms genetic, and so reproduction vary and reproduction is
within a population passed on to offspring among individuals in related to heritable
a population trait variation
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Biological Fitness, Biological Adaptations
Fitness Adaptation
• The relative ability of an individual to • A feature produced by natural selection
produce viable offspring compared to for its current function
others in the population • Adaptations must be heritable, and
• In every generation more offspring are increase fitness relative to others in the
produced that can survive population that lack the trait
• Some individuals die before producing • Adaptations can be structural,
offspring physiological, behavioural
• Others have fewer offspring (have fewer
resources, don’t find a mate)
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1. Trait variation among organisms in a population
Variation in colour and banding
patterns in brown-lipped snails
(Cepaea nemoralis) in England
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2. Trait variation is heritable (has a genetic basis)
Background Colour Banding patterns Other traits with genetic basis
Single locus, multiple alleles Three loci determine up to 5 bands Spread of band pigments
Brown dominant to Pink 1. Presence/absence of all bands Colour of lip and bands
dominant to Yellow 2. Loss of all bands except band 3
3. Loss of just bands 1 and 2
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3. Survival and reproduction vary with the trait
Dark shells heat up more quickly Song Thrushes more likely to predate shells that
in the sun, and cause overheating aren’t camouflaged in the local environment
and death in open habitats.
“Stand by the grey
stone when the thrush
knocks, and the setting
sun... will shine upon
the key-hole.” J.R.R.
Tolkien, The Hobbit
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4. Selection: variation in survival is related to heritable trait variation
Yellow morphs are more common in warmer, sunnier southern Europe
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4. Selection: variation in survival is related to heritable trait variation
More yellow shells in open, meadow habitat; these are warmer, AND
banding patterns may assist with camouflage in these habitats
yellow
In this example, we
infer selection from
among-population
variation in allele
frequencies
brown
unbanded
banded unbanded
Wood Hedge Meadow 20
Selection on beak size in the medium ground finch
• Geospiza fortis, on Daphne Major in the
Galapagos (seed eaters)
• Studied for 40+ years!
• All finches on the island captured,
measured, marked
Peter and Rosemary
Grant 21
Beak size, beak shape, and body size are all heritable
For continuously varying traits
like beak depth, heritability
can be defined as correlation 1978 (green dots)
between parents and offspring
1976 (blue dots)
Offspring Beak Depth
Parents Beak Depth
(average for breeding pair)
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A “Natural Experiment”
• Significant drought caused high mortality
in the finch population
• Normal food (small, soft seeds)became
unavailable; finches able to eat large,
hard seeds could eat and survive
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Section 22.4
A “Natural Experiment”
• Survivors had significantly larger beak
depth than the pre-drought population:
variation in survival due to heritable
variation in a trait
• Beak depth fluctuated over 40 years …. But
aren’t larger beaks “best”?
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Section 22.4
The direction of selection can change if the environment changes
Geospiza fortis Geospiza magnirostris = magna, big + rostris, nose
Large-beaked G. fortis (A)
can eat the hard seeds of T.
cistoides (D), but small-
beaked G. fortis (C) cannot.
Large beak
Very large-beaked G.
magnirostris (B) also can
eat the hard seeds, even
better than large-beaked G.
fortis
Small beak
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With a really huge beak!
Arrival of
new species
Larger
Large beaks can Competitor species,
crack large G. magnirostris
Mean beak size seeds
Smaller beaked
Severe Severe
G. fortis can feed
drought drought
on small seeds
Smaller
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
New competitor: The next drought: evolution of
We saw this already: Competition for food smaller beaks, because hard seeds
Drought evolution of evolution of were eaten by competitor, large-
larger beaks in G. fortis smaller beaks beaked finches did not survive 26
Summary: natural selection and evolution in Darwin’s finches
• The finch population responded to selection because there was heritable
variation in an ecologically important trait, beak size
• The most advantageous beak size for survival and reproduction changed over
time, because of the ecological conditions
• The adaptive radiation of finches on the Galapagos was likely due to different
conditions on the different islands—more on adaptive radiations to come!
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Remember the four requirements for evolution by natural selection
1. Trait variation
2. Heritability
3. Fitness Variation
4. Selection: fitness differences due to variation in heritable traits
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Adaptations result from natural selection
Adaptation
A heritable trait that Adaptations can be:
increases the fitness of
an individual with the • Structural
trait, compared with
individuals lacking the • Physiological
trait, in a particular • Behavioural
environment
Question: What sort of adaptation do you
think the snail and finch examples were?
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Structural Adaptations
Physical, anatomical Camouflage: this Hymenopus Defense: the spines on this
features of an organism mantis hides and hunts on an Opuntia prickly pear (the only
that increase their orchid flower cactus in Canada!) deter
survival and/or herbivores
reproduction in their
environment
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Physiological Adaptations
Biochemical or
metabolic changes that Hummingbirds can enter torpor Extremophiles (Archaeans and
to use less energy during cold Bacteria) in the hot springs of
help an organisms
periods. Body temperature falls Yellowstone have enzymes that
maintain homeostasis and heartrate slows. Metabolism work best in the 70° C water.
and survive in its is reduced by as much as 95%!
environment
Composite infrared image: L to R is normal, transitioning, torpor
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Behavioural Adaptations
An action by an organism
in response to a Meerkats live in groups This Mespilia tuxedo
particular situation or and one stands guard urchin uses tentacles to
stimulus in their while others forage, wear shells (or other
environment. Can be sounding an alarm if items!) for protection
instinctive or learned. predators approach and camouflage
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Misconceptions about natural selection
• Some words we use in daily life are used differently by scientists (review “fitness” and
“adaptation”).
• Casual terminology can increase misconceptions about the process by suggesting
purpose or introducing hierarchical thinking.
1. Natural selection 2. Natural Selection
does not change is not goal-directed
individuals
3. Natural selection 4. Natural selection is
does not lead to not the only
perfection evolutionary process
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1. Individuals
Traits are inherited from parents— Acquired traits are not passed on to
they do not arise due to the offspring (cannot be inherited).
selection event, or through “use”
and “disuse”.
This giraffe is Arnold
stretching to Schwarzenegger’s
reach leaves, “Mr. Olympia”
but this does muscles weren’t
not change its passed on to his
neck. kids.
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1. Individuals
Genetically identical individuals can express different traits.
Polyphenism: individuals Acclimatization: a change in Learning: A change in
have different forms due to an individual’s traits during individual behaviour resulting
differences in their their lifetime, in response to a from a specific experience.
environments. change in the environment.
Alligator sex is determined by Training at high altitudes leads to Cuttlefish learned to wait for a higher-
incubation temperature athletes making more red blood cells value food in a lab experiment,
to carry oxygen. exhibiting great self-control.
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2. Not goal-directed
Adaptations don’t occur because organisms “want” or “need” them.
Mutations: occur by chance, not design. Evolution is not progressive; traits can
be either gained or lost and evolution
Individuals pass on both advantageous does not produce “higher” organisms.
and non-advantageous genes.
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2. Artificial selection IS goal-directed
Artificial selection is deliberate Dogs: from Grey Wolves to endless
manipulation by humans of the genetic variation in face shape, size, and
behaviour
composition of a population by allowing
only individuals with desired traits to
reproduce.
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3. Adaptation is not perfection
Vestigial Traits Fitness trade-offs
An evolutionary “leftover”, present in
Optimizing one aspect of fitness
the ancestral population. Not adaptive,
reduces another, preventing perfection
but not costly enough for selection to
act against.
The long tail of peacocks helps them attract a mate,
Human ear muscles are vestigial, though some but also makes them more susceptible to predation
people can use them to wiggle their ears!
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3. Adaptation is not perfection: constraints
Genetic Constraints Phylogenetic Constraints Environmental Constraints
A population may lack the Because all traits evolve from Traits that are adaptive under
genetic variation that would be previous traits, they are some environmental conditions
required for evolution of a trait. constrained by evolutionary may not be adaptive under
history. different conditions.
One gene may affect multiple
traits, so a non-adaptive trait Traits may no longer be adaptive
may evolve alongside a when colonizing new
correlated adaptive trait. environments or if the local
environment changes.
Blue-eyed mary plants that flower Tetrapods have four legs in two
earlier are genetically constrained to pairs, by definition: so can’t
make smaller flowers that are less also evolve wings, a third pair of
attractive to pollinators. appendages White coat color is less adaptive when
snowpack is reduced due to climate change. 39
4. Other evolutionary processes
Remember, evolution is a change in the allele frequencies of a population.
Natural selection is only one of the processes that can affect allele frequencies. We will
discuss all these after we understand genetics a bit better!
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Facts about evolution that are often misunderstood: summary
1. Natural selection 2. Natural Selection 3. Natural selection 4. Natural selection is
does not change is not goal-directed does not lead to not the only
individuals perfection evolutionary process
Differences in survival Mutations occur by Traits are not always Mutation, genetic
or reproduction among chance, not by design. adaptive drift, and gene flow
individuals mean those also lead to changes
with advantageous Individuals pass on Traits can be in allele frequencies
traits are more likely to both advantageous genetically, within populations
pass them on. and non-advantageous phylogenetically, or
genes. environmentally
Traits are inherited from constrained
parents—they do not Evolution is not We will return to
arise due to the progressive; traits can other mechanisms
selection event. be either gained or lost of evolution once
and evolution does not we cover genetics!
produce “higher”
organisms.
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