Fisika Atmosfer (Atmospheric Physics)

Atmospheric dynamics: Navier-Stokes equation, continuity equation

Jurusan Fisika-FMIPA Universitas Andalas

marzuki@[Link]
 Last week
• simple energy balance calculations reveal a lot
about our climate:
– presence of natural greenhouse effect
– latitudinal and vertical structure of T and
energy
– radiative-convective equilibrium
• feedbacks are important and can only
be addressed with numerical models
• global energy budget is delicate balance, small
changes have large effects
Ruang lingkup perkuliahan
1. Outline, literature, rule and introduction
2. Vertical structure of the atmosphere
3. Adiabatic processes - Vertical stability
4. Atmospheric radiation: Absorption, scattering, emission
5. Atmospheric radiation: The energy budget of the atmosphere
6. Atmospheric dynamics: Navier-Stokes equation, continuity equation
7. Atmospheric dynamics: Pressure gradients and wind fields, thermal wind
8. Atmospheric dynamics: Vorticity
9. Atmospheric dynamics: The planetary boundary layer
10. Atmospheric circulation: Global circulation patterns, planetary waves
11. Atmospheric circulation: Pressure systems, Hadley cell
12. Diffusion and turbulence: Molecular diffusion, basics of turbulence
13. Diffusion and turbulence: Theorem of Taylor, correlated fluctuations
14. Diffusion and turbulence: Diffusion of scalar tracers
15. Near-surface dynamics: Wind profile, influence of surface friction
16. The Hydrological Cycle
17. Climate Change
18. Strat. Chemistry: Chapman Cycle
19. Strat. Chemistry: Ozone in the atmosphere
20. Aeorosol Physics I: Aeorosol Mechanics
21. Aeorosol Physics II: Particle Formation, Particle Growth
22. Measurement Techniques
23. Modeling the Atmosphere
24. Science trip (Equatorial Atmosphere Radar site-Bukittinggi)
 Outline for Today
1. Eulerian and Lagrangian description of atmospheric
dynamics
2. Forces in fluid media
a. Pressure gradient
b. Gravitation and geopotential
c. Friction
d. Coriolis force
3. The Navier Stokes equation
4. Implications of the Navier Stokes equation
a. Acceleration by pressure gradients
b. Geostrophic wind
c. Movement of an air parcel in the absence of external forces
 Description of atmospheric motion
• description of atmospheric motion:
flow of a fluid
• Lagrangian description:
– considering a material element, V(t)
– atmosphere consists of huge number of V(t)
• Eulerian description:
– describes field of fluid motion
 Derivative of a vector field
• consider field variable Ψ=Ψ(t,x,y,z)
• incremental change of Ψ is described by total differential:
∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ
dΨ = dt + dx + dy + dz
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Ψ
= dt +∇Ψ ⋅dx
∂t
• differentiation with respect to time gives:
dΨ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ
= +u +v +w
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Ψ
= +v ⋅∇Ψ
∂t
Lagrangian or material derivative, “following the motion”
• Eulerian or local derivative (at a fixed location):
∂Ψ
∂t
• advective contribution:
 Forces in fluid media:
a. Pressure gradients
dFx =Fx (x )−Fx (x +dx ) y

=[p(x) − p (x +dx )]⋅dA

Fx(x) Fx(x+dx)

=[p (x )− p (x +dx )]⋅dy ⋅dz z

⎡ ⎛ ∂p ⎞ ⎤
=⎢p (x )−⎢p(x) + dx ⎢⎢⋅dy ⋅dz
∂x ⎠
x x+dx
⎣ ⎝ ⎦ x

∂p ∂p
=− dx ⋅ dy ⋅ dz =− ⋅ dV
∂x ∂x

Same calculation for Fy and Fz yields the force due to pressure gradients:
 Pressure Gradient Force, PGF

You can see that the winds are directed away from the high pressure region, "H," and towards the low
pressure region, "L." Note, however, that the direction of the winds are not exactly from high to low
pressure.
Vertical flow of air ?
The vertical pressure gradient is much larger than the horizontal pressure
gradient (~100 x), yet winds don't blow straight up.

Why?

Gravity acts to stop, or slow, the vertical flow of air, so vertical winds are
much less than horizontal winds. Most vertical winds are on the order of 1
mph, however some downdrafts and updrafts can be up to 60 mph.
 Forces in fluid media:
b. Gravitation and geopotential
• Gravitational force per volume:
f g =ρ g 0
with g0 = 9.81 m s-2
• Better: describe graviation as the gradient of a geopotential:
z
Φ(z, ϕ)=∫g (z', ϕ)dz'
0
g(z,φ) is the gravitation field as a function of altitude z and latitude φ.
Contributions of the centripetal force (~0.4% of g0 at the Equator)
can be included in g(z,φ)
-> small horizontal components of the gravitational field occur
• -> Gravitational force:

• Empirical formula for g(z,φ): g (z, ϕ)=9.806⋅(1−0.0026⋅cos(2ϕ))(1 −3.1⋅10 ⋅ z )⋅m s

−7 -2
Geopotential Height
Geopotential height approximates the actual height of a pressure surface above mean
sea-level. Therefore, a geopotential height observation represents the height of the
pressure surface on which the observation was taken.

Since cold air is more dense than warm

air, it causes pressure surfaces to be
lower in colder air masses, while less
dense, warmer air allows the pressure
surfaces to be higher. Thus, heights are
lower in cold air masses, and higher in
warm air masses.

A line drawn on a weather map

connecting points of equal height (in
meters) is called a height contour. That
means, at every point along a given
contour, the values of geopotential
height are the same. An image
depicting the geopotential height field
is given below.
 Forces in fluid media:
c. Friction
• Molecular-viscous friction is caused
by diffusion of momentum due to
Downward transport
gradients in the velocity field of momentum ρ vx(z2) vx(z2)
• The flux of momentum is called
shear stress:
vx(z1)
Upward transport
of momentum ρ vx(z1)

η: dynamic viscosity
ν: kinematic viscosity
jpx,z indicates the flux of the x-component of the momentum px = ρ vx
in z-direction
• τ is actually a tensor
• Values for air at 20°C:
η = 1.8 x 105 Pa s
ν = 0.15 cm2 s-1
Forces in fluid media:
c. Friction
 Forces in fluid media:
c. Friction

• K, ν and ρ are constant in

many cases, yielding:

z
z
• Therefore friction only occurs
if ∂vx/ ∂z ≠ 0. vx vx
In case of ∂vx/ ∂z = 0, the
Linear velocity profile: Quadratically increasing
shear stress at the top and No friction velocity profile:
bottom of a layer cancel out Constant friction
(although there is still a flux of
momentum)
 Forces in fluid media: d. Coriolis force
• The Earth is no inertial system, but a rotating
coordinate system
• Therefore centripetal and Coriolis forces
occur
• Centripetal force is very small
(compared to gravitation) and can be
neglected
• Coriolis force of an air parcel with velocity
v in a coordinate system with angular
velocity Ω:

• Horizontal component of the Coriolis force (relative to the Earth‘s surface):

f c =2 ρ v Ω sin ϕ=2 ρ v f
with the latitude φ the Coriolis parameter f = Ω sin φ
• Coriolis acceleration at 45° latitude for a horizontal velocity of 10 m/s:
10-3 m/s2 (4 orders of magnitude smaller than gravitation!)
• In the northern hemisphere, the Coriolis force is directed to the right (relative
to the velocity vector)
 Coriolis force
Coriolis Force (Co), results in
objects being deflected owing to
rotation of the Earth beneath
them.
Figure 6.11 in The Atmosphere,
8th edition, Lutgens and Tarbuck,
8th edition, 2001.

The effect of the Coriolis Force (for various latitudes).

Figure 6.12 in The Atmosphere, 8th edition, Lutgens
and Tarbuck, 8th edition, 2001.
 The Navier-Stokes Equation
• Summary of the previously discussed contributions:
The force per volume in a fluid medium is given by

• The Navier-Stokes equation (Euler equation) is non-linear

because it is quadratic in v:

• This non-linearity causes chaotic phenomena in the

atmosphere
 Classification of the
Navier-Stokes Equation
The behaviour of solutions of the Navier-Stokes equation can be
classified using dimensionless numbers:
 Reynolds-Number and turbulence
• The Reynolds-Number

(with l being the length scale of the system) provides an estimate for
laminar or turbulent behaviour of a fluid
• Critical Reynolds numbers:
Recrit ≈ 50,000 for flat surfaces
Recrit ≈ 2,300 for tubular structures

For a fluid flowing through a pipe – as a rule of thumb

Re < ~ 2000 laminar flow
~ 2000 < Re < ~ 3000 unstable laminar / turbulent
Re > ~ 2000 turbulent
Reynolds-Number and turbulence
 Reynolds-Number and turbulence
• Typical Reynolds number in the atmosphere:
– Viscosity: ν = 0.15 cm2/s
– Typical velocity: v = 5 m/s
– Typical length scale: l = 1000 m
• -> Re ≈ 3 x 108, atmosphere is governed by turbulence
• Length scale above which turbulence occurs:
ν ⋅Re crit
lcrit = ≈3 mm
v
• -> Molecular-viscous flow and dissipation of energy
only important at length scales below ≈ 3 mm
 Implications of the Navier-Stokes equation:
Acceleration by pressure gradients

• Neglect friction, Coriolis force and gravitation

dv 1
• Acceleration: a = =− ∇p
dt ρ
• Example: With the air density of ρ ≈ 1.29 kg m-3, a horizontal
pressure gradient of 5 mBar (500 Pa) per
100 km leads to an acceleration of:
1 5 ⋅10 2 Pa
a= ≈4 ⋅10 −3
m s −2

1.29 kg m −3 10 5 m

• This corresponds to an increase in velocity of 14 m/s per hour

 Implications of the Navier-Stokes equation:
Geostrophic wind

• Neglect friction and gravitation

• Stationary flow: dv/dt = 0
• Equation of motion: [ ]
0 =−∇p +2 ρ v×Ω
low p Fp

• Angular velocity:
Ω =(0,0, Ω sin ϕ)=(0,0, f 2 )
• x- and y components:
∂p 1 ∂p vg
=ρ f v y vy =
∂x ρ f ∂x
∂p 1 ∂p high p FC
=−ρ f v x v x =−
∂y ρ f ∂y
• Thus the velocity is perpendicular to the pressure gradient  Geostrophic wind
 Ageostrophic wind
Example: consider case where geostrophic wind
has been established; now: move to region with
smaller p-gradient
• Wind speed becomes faster than
Fp(t0) during geostrophic balance
less
low
low
pp
Fp(t1) • Resulting force Fr leads to an
acceleration of air parcel towards
vg(t0) higher pressure
• Direction of Fc changes
Fr(t1) -+ direction of F r changes
vg(t1) -> change in v until new steady
state is reached
high p FC • Similar for case of stronger p-
gradient
Implications of the Navier-Stokes equation:
Geostrophic wind

• Geostrophic wind only for φ>10°, otherwise Coriolis

force is too weak
• Pure geostrophic wind cannot reduce p-gradient as it
is parallel to isobars
• In the real atmosphere, friction is of importance.
• Molecular friction is only important in lowest few cm
of the atmosphere leading to the “no-slip boundary
condition”
• Friction that is active here is “turbulent friction”
 Geostrophic wind with friction
• assume balance of pressure gradient, Coriolis and
(turbulent) friction:
low p Fp Fp +Fc +Fr =0
vr

Angle of wind velocity depends

FR on surface friction, e.g.:
vg
ocean: 15°-30°
land: 25°-40°
high p FC
“rough” land: 35°-50°
Friction is most important near the ground and less important higher in the atmosphere. If we consider winds aloft,
an important wind is the geostrophic wind. Friction acts to retard the motion of the wind -- it is always in the direction
opposite the wind velocity. Friction acts to oppose the flow of the air. The air will slow down, reducing the Coriolis
force. This results in an imbalance of forces. The atmosphere adjusts, to regain a balance, by turning the wind toward
low pressure. A new balance is achieved when the sum of the Friction and Coriolis forces balance the horizontal
pressure gradient force.
 Cyclostrophic wind

• Neglect friction, gravitation and pressure gradient

dv v02
• Centripetal force: ρ =ρ
dt R
2
v0
• Equation of motion: ρ =2 ρ v0 ×Ω =ρ f v 0
R
• -> Air flows circular with a radius R =v0 and a period T = 2π R = 2π
• Assume v = 10 m s-1: f v0 f
Latitude ϕ Location R T0
90° Pole North 69 km 12 h
45° Italy 98 km 17 h
30° 267 km 24 h
Tropics
0° ∞ ∞
Equator
 Example
On June 8, 1995 a network of weather instruments captured the passage of a
destructive, mile-wide tornado near Allison, Texas.

From Winn et al., Journal of Geophysical

Research-D, Sept. 27, 1999, Figure 13, page
[Link] 22077.
ents/damage/[Link]
 Summary
• The atmosphere is a fluid medium
• Motion of air is governed by
– Pressure gradients
– Gravitiation
– Viscous friction
– Coriolis force
• Atmospheric motion is described by the Navier-Stokes
equation
• Navier-Stokes equation is non-linear
-> Tubulence, chaotic motion
• Turbulence starts when Reynolds-Number exceeds a
critical number
• Idealised motion patterns can be inferred from the
Navier-Stokes equation by neglecting individual terms