SYLLABUS Semiconductor Physics Intrinsic semiconductor, Derivation of density of electrons in conduction band and density of holes in valence band, Intrinsic carrier concentration, Variation of Intrinsic carrier concentration with temperature, Extrinsic semiconductor (qualitative) Formation of p-n junction, Fermi level in semiconductors-intrinsic and extrinsic, Energy band diagram of p-n junction - Qualitative description of charge flow across a p-n junction - Forward and reverse biased p-n junctions, Diode equation (Derivation), I-V Characteristics of p-n junction Intrinsic semiconductor Y Pure form of semiconductor material without any significant impuritics or dopants are known as intrinsic semiconductors. ¥ I possess electrical conductivity that lies between that of conductors and insulators Y Examples: Silicon, Germanium Properties of intrinsic semiconductor e T>0K Y Relatively low electrical conductivity because of limited number of free electrons and holes. ¥ Number of electrons in CB is equal to number of holes in VB. Y Conductivity increases significantly with temperature as more electron hole pairs are generated duc to thermal agitation. They | =$-$—=$=$— have negative temperature coefficient of resistance — Y They have well defined crystalline structure. Example: The diamond lattice for silicon and germanium. Y The electrical properties of intrinsic semiconductor significantly alter with the addition of even a small amount of impurity. Y They have characteristic energy gap between CB and VB. ‘This energy gap determines their optical properties.Carrier concentration or density of charge carriers of an intrinsic semiconductor Y With increase in temperature covalent bonds are broken in an_ intrinsic semiconductor. As a result free electrons are produced in CB and holes (electron vacancy) are produced in VB. Y As electrons and holes are charged particles, they are together called charge carriers Y Carrier concentration (density of charge carriers) is the number of electrons in the conduction band per unit volume (n) and the number of holes in the valence band per unit volume (p) of the material e T>0K Number of electrons volume of semiconductor Number of holes volume of semiconductor Distance Density of electrons in conduction band Let dn be the number of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band in an energy range E and E+dE. Then dn can be expressed as dn=Z(E) dE F(E) Y Here Z(E) dE is called density of states in the energy interval E and E + dE ¥ F(B) is Fermi distribution function which gives probability that a state of energy is occupied by an electron. Let Eg is the energy corresponding to the bottom edge of the conduction band and % be the energy corresponding to the top edge of the conduction band. So the number of electrons per unit volume (clectron density) in the CB is given by n= [Z(E)f(E)dE ke -(l) (2) From statistical mechanics, density of states For an electron in the CB m, is effective mass of electron (m,*) Eis » Where E, is the energy at the bottom of CB his planks constantSo (2) can be written as (Ede = ..) a ‘The probability of an electron occupying an energy level is given by Here By. is Fermi level of semiconductor 1 fe) - —__1__. K- Boltzmann constant trexp[(E-E-)/ ar] “~~ @) ‘T-Temperature ‘The number of available states in the conduction band is far larger than the number of electrons in the band. Then, Fermi-Dirac function can be approximated to Boltzmann function, AB) = expl-(E- EpvkT] ©) pwd (7) So equation 6 can be written as "= 73 (2m,)?e ‘The integral in eq, (7) is of the standard form which has a solution of the following form. E-EQ etetar - ve where a= I/kT and 3 3 2ava eq. () can be written as = Hem) dirk abs ny} - 8) Rearranging the terms, we get e 2nm_,kT a The above equation is the expression for the electron concentration in the conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor.2nm_,kT (Ee I Designating Ne ~ { 9) n= Nee ~(@c- Fev] Ne is a temperature dependent material constant known as the effective density of states in the conduction band. In silicon at 300 K, Nc = 2.8 X 10/m>, ‘The importance of the relation (8) is that it relates the equilibrium electron concentration to a single variable, namely the Fermi level E,. Therefore, electron concentration is specified, if Eis specified. Density of holes in valence band If 5) is the probability for occupancy of an energy state E by an electron, then probability for occupancy of that state by a hole is equal to [1-RE) Let dp be the number of holes per unit volume in the energy interval E and E + dE in thevalence band. Then, dp = Z(B)[1 - f(E)]dE.- -() where Z(E)dE is the density of states in the energy interval E and E + dE In order to calculate the concentration of holes in the valence band above equation is to be integrated between the limits —% and F,. The hole density in the valence band is therefore given by 2) P =f" Z(B)[1 - £2)]dEWe can write [I-AB)] = ott MEAT sereevereecnecen e) The density of states in the valence band is given by HEME = “r(2m) EVE For hole in the VB m, is effective mass of hole (m,*) Bis E,-F, where B, is the energy corresponds to top edge of VB his planks constant MEME = FE(2mj) (By BY AE oc cseeeee ® Using (3) and (4) in (2) ps (2m iy fe, 8) —(Ee-EVKT ap Any, +«\3/2 = “ U2 -(E,- = pm) ot Ey kT J (oy i (Ey EVAT op B=E,-x 1 = When E =E, , x=0 ‘Then dE = -dx When B= 2, x= p- Eom ie Ep-Ey WAT 0 The integral in above equation is of the standard form which has a solution of the following form Jetesar _ vr 0 where a= Vk and x= (Ey- E). al 2awe Slam) eteravr = (ry? Rearranging the terms, we get 3/2 2n myAT : p= 2/22mkT | Aee-ssyer ‘The above equation is the expression for the hole concentration in the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor 2 3/2, Denoting yy, ~ ose] 2 p = N,etér- Evi N is called the effective density of states in the valence band. INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION| Assingle event of bond breaking in a pure semiconductor leads to generation of an electron- hole pair. At any temperature 7, the number of electrons generated will be equal to the number of holes generated. As the two charge carrier concentrations are equal, they are denoted by a common symbol n,, which is called intrinsic density or intrinsic concentration. Thus, n=p=n, We can write that n?, = np = (N-etFe~ EnvAT)(N, ee Ek) = (NN yen EAT The term (Fc — Fy) stands for the difference in energy between the top level of valence band and the bottom level of conduction band. Thus, it represents the separation between the valence and conduction bands, which is the band gap E, (Ec-Ey) = Ey Wh = (NoN,)eEAT . = AT Substituting the values of N,. and N,, into the above equation, we obtain 2 QmkT Ty + 632 eer nj = [227 f cnt) et 2 +84, _ 7] (ims) orb 27] ee This is the expression for intrinsic carrier concentration.Variation of Intrinsic Carrier Concentration with Temperature We have 8 -E,/2kT ] (nim) 786% Where a; is intrinsic cartier concentration, E, is the energy band gap, k is Boltzmann's constant, ‘T is absolute temperature. From the above equation it is clear that as temperature increases, the intrinsic cartier concentration increases exponentially as mote electrons jumps from the valence band to conduction band, creating more electron hole pairs. (exponential term is more significant compared to T 3/?) The following important points may be inferred from the above relation. © The intrinsic concentration is independent of Fermi level. © The intrinsic concentration has an exponential dependence on the band gap value E, © It strongly depends on the temperature. © The factor 2 in the expression indicates that two charge carriers are produced for one covalent bond broken FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR| The electron concentration in the conduction band is given by [= war n= Neer Ear ” The hole concentration in the valence band is given by _ cE ary p= Nyectereir a In an intrinsic semiconductor, the electron and hole concentrations are equal. Thus, n =p (ER IRT = NE EVAT [i Noo ‘Taking logarithm on both sides, w Ect Ep = er nee, +E, Ne Be Ey) tht in Ne Ne Forty Ver yp Ae 2 2) "Ne When T = 0KElectron Energy = ° Valence band Distance ¥ The above result shows that in an intri semiconductor _the Fermi level lies in the middle of the forbidden gap at T=0K. That also implies that the probability of finding an electron in either band is equal. The fermi level can shift slightly with temperature. Y An important point to be noted here is that the Fermi level is not an allowed energy level in semiconductors. It only serves as a reference energy with reference to which we specify the energies of electrons and holes in a semiconductor EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS ¥ Intrinsic semiconductors are not useful for device manufacture because of low conductivity and the strong dependence of conductivity on temperature. Y An intentional introduction of controlled amount of impurity into an intrinsic semiconductor is called doping. The impurity added is called a dopant. v A semiconductor doped with impurity atoms is called an extrinsic semiconductor ¥ The impurity-produced electrons are not temperature-dependent but are voltage-dependent and they will be under our control. ¥ Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types n-type and p-typen-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR Formation - An n-type semiconductor is formed by doping intrinsic semiconductor (Si, Ge) with a pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb) atom, Pentavalent impurity, which donates extra free electrons, making electrons the majority charge cartier, ° 0: @2@: See Po women “1 le mene [Po Remar OS Ole @ 3 So ees, bose 4 O2 Or O= (esa) Energy level diagram _- The energy levels corresponding to phosphorous atoms are neater to the bottom edge of the conduction band. ‘They ate called donor levels(Ep), as even small amount of thermal energy can readily liberate the fifth electron from the atom and send it into the conduction band without the generation of holes Fermi level of n-type semiconductor AtoK When T = 0K, Fermi level lies midway between the donor levels(E,y) and the bottom of the conduction band Ex As the temperature increases : The donor levels gradually get depleted and the Fermi level moves downward. When temperature reaches T;, called depletion temperature, complete depletion of donor levels occurs and the Fermi level coincides with the donor level Ey As the temperature grows further above T, The Fermi level shifts downward in an approximately linear fashion. At higher temperature called intrinsic temperature (T;), the n-type semiconductor loses its extrinsic character and behaves as an intrinsic semiconductor. Here fermi level is in the middle of CB and VBedges. fa ii Ee cin Electron energy T> 0K Valence band 100 200 300 400 74p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR Formation - An p-type semiconductor is formed by doping intrinsic semiconductor (Si, Ge) with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, Ga) atom. Trivalent impurity generates vacancy of electrons called holes, making holes as the majority charge carriers. sient g 3@:@:@: 3@: O30: ero 7 om ior Energy level diagram : The energy levels —_— k . corresponding to boron atoms are nearer to the top edge of the valence band. ‘They are | called acceptor levels, as even small 5, amount of thermal energy can make an electron in the valence band jump into the acceptor level. Producing holes in VB that can move freely in the valence band. £0.01 - 0.05 eV T> 0K Fermi level of p-type semiconductor AtoK Fermi level lies midway between the acceptor level (E,) and the top of the valence band ke the temperature increases ‘The acceptor levels gradually get filled and the Fermi level moves upward. At the temperature of saturation 7s, the Fermi level coincides with the acceptor level Ey As the temperature increases above Ts ‘The Fermi level shifts upward in an approximately linear fashion, At higher temperature called intrinsic temperature (Ti), the p-type semiconductor loses its extrinsic character and behaves as an intrinsic semiconductor e | Valence band 1 700200 ~-~300°~«=—«400Comparison of n—type and p-type semiconductor n-Type Semiconductor p-Type Semiconductor Formed by doping with pentavalent impurity (¢.g, Phosphorus, Arsenic) Formed by doping pure semiconductor with trivalent impurity (¢.g., Boron, Gallium) Majority carriers are Electrons .Minority carriers are holes Majority carriers are Holes. Minority carriers are electrons Donor energy level is formed just below conduction band ‘Acceptor energy level is formed just above valence band Fermi level lies closer to conduction band Fermi level lies closer to valence band At 0K, Fermi level lies between donor level and conduction band At 0 K, Fermi level lies between acceptor level and valence band Conduction mainly due to movement of electrons Conduction mainly due to movement of holes Ionized impurities are positively charged Tonized impurities are negatively charged Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor concentration (p) Pure semiconductor without any | Semiconductor doped with impurity impurity atoms Example: Pure Silicon or Germanium |Example: Si or Ge doped with donor/acceptor impurity Electron concentration (n) = Hole} Electron concentration # Hole concentration Charge carriers are thermally generated electron-hole pairs Charge carriers are mainly produced by impurity atoms Low electrical conductivity Higher clectrical conductivity Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of band gap Fermi level shifts toward conduction band (n-type) or valence band (p-type) Conductivity temperature depends only on Conductivity depends both temperature and impurity concentration onFormation of p-n junction YA p-n junction is formed by suitably joining a p-type and n-type semiconductor. This interface between the two materials is called p-n junction. ¥ Fabrication -Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. By adding precisely a small quantity of pentavalent impurity, part of the p-Si wafer can be converted into n-Si. There are several processes for p-n junction fabrication (Example-Alloying) iieciondificion Sequential processes involved in Electron drift —> the formation of p-n junction are e006 1. Bringing p and n together e006 2. Diffusion of majority carriers e088 3. Formation of depletion region 4, 5 e006 Drift of 086 . Drift of minority carriers .p-n junction under equilibrium and formation of barrier potential i i <— Depletion region Hole diffusion —> <— Hole drift <—Electron diffusion Electron drift —> !<— Depletion region Hole diffusion —> <— Hole aritt Y Duting the formation of p-n junction, and due to the concentration gradient across p and n sides, holes diffuse from p-side to n-side and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side . This motion of charge carries gives tise to diffusion current actoss the junction, Y Blectron diffusion results in the formation of positive space charge on n region of the junction and hole diffusion produces negative space charge region on p-side of the junction. This space-charge region on cither side of the junction together is known as depletion region. Y Due to the electric field in the depletion region, an electron on p-side (minority carrier) of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on n side (minority cartier) of the junction moves to p-side. The motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift.<—Electron diffusion Electron drift —> ese e080 p 99e@ on ese 9088 <— Depletion region Hole diffusion —> <— Hole drift ¥ Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process continues, the space-charge regions on cither side of the junction extend, thus increasing the electric field strength and hence drift current. This process continues until the diffusion current equals the drift current. ‘Thus a p-n junction is formed. In a p-n junction under equilibrium there is no net current. v The potential difference created by the built in electric field is called the barrier potential, because it acts as a barrier that prevents further movement of majority charge carriers across the junction Energy band diagram of p-n junction n- type << Flectron diffusion P- type typ Electron dit —> e000 —e ——_ E. See8 Pp Ses8 on Sees e088 Ep. '<— Depletion region _ Hole difusion—> a & ————__ E, = tte ain Y Due to the passage of high energy electrons from n to p region, the energy of n region conduction band decreases. Vv This is represented by the downward shift of band structure of n region Y When diffusion current and drift current are equal, junction will be in thermal equilibrium and net current flow is zero. This is represented by same fermi level. v The material property band gap should not be changed. This is represented by bending the band structure at the junctionp- type Electron Drift n- type Y Electron Diffusion o-+-Ep Neutral n-region Energy band diagram of p-n junction Biasing of p-n junction Symbol for p-n junction diode. pType Type L Anods Cathode Conventional current rection in forward bis conditionp-n JUNCTION UNDER FORWARD BIAS When a p-n junction is forward biased, meaning the p-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-side to the negative terminal, the following effects occur: Vo VorVe 1. Diffusion Current: Y The applied forward voltage reduces the potential barrier at the junction. The forward bias voltage V; appears across the junction and acts opposite to the internal potential V,,. The effective voltage across the junction is (V,-V,) now. Therefore, the potential barrier is reduced from eV, to e(V,-Vy)- ¥ This allows more majority carriers (holes from the p-side and electrons from the n side) to diffuse across the junction. Y Asa result, the diffusion current increases significantly. Y The diffusion current is the dominant current in forward bias, leading to a large current flow. 2. Drift Current: Y The drift current is due to the minority carriers (electrons in the p-region and holes in the n-tegion) moving under the influence of the built-in electric field. ¥ Since the forward bias lowers the built-in electric field, the drift current remains small and almost constant. 3. Overall Effect: Y The total current in a forward-biased p-n junction is mainly diffusion current. Y The drift current is negligible in comparison. Y This results in a large net current flow through the diode.n JUNCTION UNDER REVERSE BIAS When a p-n junction is reverse biased, meaning the p-side is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-side to the positive terminal, the following effects occur: Vow VotVa Iny 7 - Y In reverse bias, the depletion region widens because the applied voltage pulls electrons toward the positive terminal and holes toward the negative terminal, preventing their movement across the junction. ‘The reverse bias voltage Vy appears across the junction and acts in same direction to the internal potential V,, The effective voltage across the junction is (V,+V,) now, Therefore, the potential batrier is increased from eV, to e(V,+Vq)- Y Asa result, diffusion current (current due to majority carriers) decreases to nearly zero because the carriers do not have enough energy to di depletion region |, fy 1. Diffusion Current fuse across the widened 2. Drift Current ¥ In reverse bias, the electric field strength increases as the depletion region widens. Y Minority carriers experience a stronger force from the electric field, which sweeps them across the junction. Y Therefore, drift current remains constant (determined by the minority cartier concentration and temperature) and becomes the primary source of current in reverse bias, 3. Overall Effect Y The total current in reverse bias is very small (only due to drift current from minority carriers). Y However, at very high reverse voltages, avalanche breakdown or Zener breakdown can occur, leading to a large reverse current.THE DIODE EQUATION Diode equation gives the relation between the current flowing through the diode and the external voltage applied to it Consider a p-n junction diode without biasing . By Boltzmann relation , hole lensity in p- is aiven bi density in p-region is given by an vy Vj, = barrier potential P,=P,eV; ...1) V;= voltage equivalent of temperature (V,=KT/e, where K is Boltzmann constant) Consider that the junction is forward biased with a voltage V, then Vp => (2) In forward biased condition, the hole density in n region increases from P, to P,+AP,....- (3) Incorporating (2) and (3) in (1) , we get B =(e+R) oe % -¥ =(Po+4P) ee Ye Using (1) in above equation = (t+ anew Aw P, = (ht Of ew Ee = rah ok [e* k_a] —® Substituting the value of P, ~ -%' from (1) : R= ReT_3O usieg © io ° a+ BOY [a] © Hoe canted (Tp) 0& change to hale lesity gf 8 aegion T % AR, ee % Using (6) in above equation, ob een (a | el =e) Tp = Ter {e 4]

t- Ble 1] a @ & cated Aiode eauation Trcospecating material Constant, The diode cauatoo Can be Wweittes as a +- hema]Voltage-current characteristics (V-I) of p-n junction A graph drawn by plotting the voltage applied across the p-n junction on X-axis and current through it on Y axis is termed as V-I characteristics of p-n junction. The circuit diagram for studying V-I characteristics is given below. The plot has three distinct regions. They are no bias region, forward bias region and reverse bias region. 2 miner k Pt voltage / pe Zero bias or no bias region ‘This happens at zero external voltage, when the key K is open. Due to the potential barrier at the junction , no current flows across it. So the circuit current is zero. This is, indicated by the point O in the graph Forward bias region Y Here p region is connected to positive terminal and n-region is connected to negative terminal. ¥ When forward biased barrier potential at the junction begins to reduce. Y The current increases very slowly with the applied voltage, since external voltage is used for overcoming the potential barrier at the junction. It is cl ¢ from diode cquation that there is an exponential relationship between current and voltage; hence obviously the graph will be non- linear. This is represented by OA in the graph. Y After some forward bias voltage called knee voltage or cut-in voltage (0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si), the current begins to increase rapidly with increase in external voltage. Cut in voltage or knee voltage is same as barrier voltage. Here the barrier collapses and the diode behaves san ordinary conductor. The plot is nearly linear and it is shown as AB.Reverse bias region Y Here p region is connected to negative terminal and n-region is connected to positive terminal. Y When reverse biased, barrier potential at the junction begins to increase and so also the junction resistance. Y Practically, no current flows across the junction. But due to the presence of minority carriers, a small reverse current called reverse satutation current flows in the reverse direction. This is shown as OC in the graph. Y Reverse saturation current remains almost constant for a wide range of reverse voltage. Y If reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of minority cartier electrons increases and they knockout electrons from semiconductor atoms. Junction breaks down and there will be an abrupt tise in the reverse current. The reverse voltage at which the diode's junction breaks down and the reverse cutrent increases suddenly is called breakdown voltage. Y The p-n junction may be damaged if operate above breakdown voltage. Problems Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration for silicon at 300 K with a band gap of 1.1 eV. Given m, *=0.12 m,andm,*=0.28m_ December 2024 « +\3/4 E,/2kT mm) Tet Here m,*=m,*=0.12m, Also m,* =m,* =0.28m, =9.1x 10 kg Take m, Substituting the values in (1) and solving, we get nj = 1.157 X 10 /m3 (1)Current flowing in a p-n junction is 0.2 wA at room temperature when a large reverse bias voltage is applied. Calculate the current when a forward bias of 0.1 V is applied. Solution: The current flowing through a junction is given by ~~ T, (e=°(Ss) 2 an" [exe See | - 220187 Puy. aet- J = 3-34 Calculate the diode current in a silicon diode at 25°C when a forward bias voltage of 0.5V is applied. The reverse saturation current at 25°C is 0.1WA (material constant, n =2). (Dec 2024) 0 [ew | = 0.1 x 1075 [el1680" x05) (2x1 20410"*.298) _ 4] = 0.1 x 10-6fe7267 — 1] = 1.676mA OR (In prescribed text Material constant 1 is not included in the derivation. Hence the solution below also can be considered as answer.) =h (em _ 1) = 01 x 10-6fel-6%107170.5)/c.38%10"254298) _ 4] =28 ADecember 2024 (2024 Scheme) What are extrinsic semiconductors? How are they formed? cos 3) What is bit ing? Explain the effects of forward biasing in a diode c03 3) a) Derive an expression for the density of electrons in the conduction band of CO3 (6) an intrinsic semiconductor. b) Prove that the location of fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor at OK lies CO3 (3) at the middle of valance and conduction bands. a) _ Explain the formation ofa p-n junction by drawing the energy band diagram CO3 (6) of a p-n junction at equilibrium condition, Mark the fermi level and the directions of diffusion and drift motions of charge carriers across the junction. b) Calculate the diode current in a silicon diode at 25°C when a forward bias CO3 (3) voltage of 0.5V is applied. The reverse saturation current at 25°C is 0.1]LA (material constant, 9 =2). (Challenge Course) Examination December 2024 Differentiate intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. co3 @) Explain the current flow across a p-n junction when it is forward biased. CO3_—_ (3) Module -3 Derive the expression for density of electrons in conduction band ofan CO3_—(9). intrinsic semiconductor. How is a p-n junction formed? Explain the energy band diagram of ap-n CO3_—_(9) junction,5 6 13 a) b) 14 a) 5 6 13a) 14 a) b) December 2025 / January 2026 (2024 Scheme) Differentiate between n-type and p-type semiconductors with their Fermi CO3 (3) level diagram. Explain Knee voltage and Breakdown voltage of p-n junction diode with V-. C033) I graph. Obtain an expression for the density of holes in the valence band of an CO3 (6) intrinsic semiconductor. Explain the effect of temperature on intrinsic carrier concentr coO3 (3) Explain the mechanism of charge flow across a p-n junction wher cos (9) forward biased and reverse biased. Discuss its V-I characteristics December 2025 (2024 Scheme) Distinguish between knee voltage and breakdown voltage for a p-njunetion 3-3). diode? ‘What is intrinsic semiconductor? List down four properties of intrinsic 3 3) semiconductor? What is Fermi level and where is its position in an intrinsic semiconductor? 3 (9) Explain with diagrams how fermi level varies in p-type and n-type semiconductors? With a neat sketch explain the V-I characteristics of a p-n junction. 3 6 ‘The current flowing in a certain p-n junction at room temperature is O.2HA 3 (3) when a large reverse bias voltage is applied. Calculate the current flow when a forward bias of 0.1 is applied TTofexp(V/Vt -1)]~--diode equation—I mark Substitution and calculation Ans-9.2uA —~2 marks10 GBPHT121 December 2024 (2024 Scheme) a) b) a) b) Define fermi energy. Give the significance of fermi level. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. Derive diode equation. At what temperature, the probability of a state to be occupied by an electron is 2.%. Given that the energy of the state is [Link] above the fermi level. Derive an expression for density of holes in valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor. Calculate the intrinsie carrier concentration for silicon at 300 K with a band gap of 1.1 eV. Given ma" =0.12 m cand m*=0.28 me col col cou cou cou cou GB) GB)