1. Question: Define molarity. Write its SI unit.
Answer: Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute present in one litre of solution.
Molarity (M) = Moles of solute / Volume of solution in litres
SI Unit: mol per litre (mol/L) or mol·L■¹.
2. Question: What are ideal solutions? Give an example.
Answer: Ideal solutions are those that obey Raoult’s law at all concentrations and temperatures.
In an ideal solution, there is no change in enthalpy (∆H = 0) and no change in volume (∆V = 0)
during mixing.
Intermolecular forces between solute and solvent are similar to those in the pure components.
Examples:
• Benzene and toluene
• Ethanol and methanol
• n-Hexane and n-Heptane.
3. Question: State Henry’s Law and mention any two applications.
Answer: Henry’s law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the
pressure of the gas above the liquid, at constant temperature.
p = k_H × x
where p = partial pressure of the gas, x = mole fraction of the gas, k_H = Henry’s law constant.
Applications:
1. Carbonated drinks – CO■ is dissolved under high pressure.
2. Scuba diving – Oxygen is diluted with helium to reduce nitrogen solubility in blood.
4. Question: State and explain Raoult’s law for a solution containing a
non-volatile solute.
Answer: Raoult’s law states that the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing
a non-volatile solute is equal to the mole fraction of the solute in the solution.
(P■ - P) / P■ = x_B
where P■ = vapour pressure of pure solvent, P = vapour pressure of solution, x_B = mole
fraction of solute.
Explanation: When a non-volatile solute is added, vapour pressure decreases since solute
particles occupy surface area, reducing escaping solvent molecules. The decrease in vapour
pressure is directly proportional to solute mole fraction.
Raoult’s law helps calculate molecular masses and understand colligative properties like
lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point, and depression of freezing point.
5. Question: What are azeotropic mixtures? Give one example each of
minimum and maximum boiling point azeotropes.
Answer: Azeotropic mixtures boil at a constant temperature and distill without composition
change. The vapour has the same composition as the liquid mixture.
Types of azeotropes:
1. Minimum boiling azeotrope:
• Lower boiling point than pure components.
• Formed by solutions showing positive deviation from Raoult’s law.
• Example: Ethanol–water (78.2°C, 95% ethanol).
2. Maximum boiling azeotrope:
• Higher boiling point than pure components.
• Formed by solutions showing negative deviation from Raoult’s law.
• Example: Hydrochloric acid–water (110°C, 20.2% HCl).
6. Question: What is reverse osmosis? Give its application.
Answer: Reverse osmosis (RO) is the process of purifying water by applying pressure greater
than the osmotic pressure on the concentrated side, forcing water to move through a
semipermeable membrane from concentrated to dilute solution.
This process is the reverse of natural osmosis.
Application:
• Used in domestic and industrial water purifiers to remove dissolved salts, impurities, and
microorganisms from seawater or hard water.