Course: Engineering Physics

Course code: 25EPHB105

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER NOTES

Chapter 4. Operational amplifier: OP-AMP characteristics (Ideal and Practical). Concept of

positive and negative feedback (at zero frequency). Linear and non-linear applications:
inverting amplifier, non inverting amplifier, voltage follower, integration, differentiation,
adder, subtractor, ZCD and comparator. 7 Hrs

1. Introduction
An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high-gain amplifier usually consisting of one or
more differential amplifiers and usually followed by a level translator and an output stage. An
operational amplifier is available as a single integrated circuit package. The operational
amplifier is a versatile device that can be used to amplify dc as well as ac input signals and was
originally designed for computing such mathematical functions as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and integration. Thus the name operational amplifier stems from its original use
for these mathematical operations and is abbreviated to op-amp. With the addition of suitable
external feedback components, the modern day op-amp can be used for a variety of
applications, such as ac and dc signal amplification, active filters, oscillators, comparators,
regulators, and others.
Op-Amps are composed of transistors, resistors, capacitors and diodes. A component-level
diagram of the common 741 op amp is shown below,
Brief History
 1941: Karl Swartzel of Bell Labs developed the first Op-
Amp. Used 3 vacuum tubes, only one input (inverting),
and operated on ± 350V to achieve 90 dB gain.
 1947: Loeba Julie developed the Op-Amp as it is known
today, with two inputs-inverting and non-inverting. The
differential input made a whole range of new functionality
possible.
 1953: First commercially available Op-Amp.
George A. Philbrick Researches (GAP-R). GAP-R pioneered the first reasonable cost, mass
produced operational amplifier.
 1961: Advent of solid-state, discrete Op-Amps.
Made possible by the invention of the silicon transistor, which led to the concept of integrated
circuits (IC).
 1962: Op-Amp in a potted module.
Packaging in small black boxes allowed for integration with a
circuit.
 1963: First monolithic IC Op-Amp, the μA702, designed by Bob
Widlar at Fairchild Semiconductor.

 1968: Release of the μA741

The μA741 became the canonical Op-Amp, from which many modern
op-amps base their pinout from, and is still in production today.

Schematic Symbol and Pin diagram of IC741

V2

Vin
Vout
V1
2. Characteristics of Ideal Op-Amp

The below figure shows an ideal op-amp. It has two input signals V1 and V2 applied to non-
inverting and inverting terminals, respectively.

The following things can be observed for the ideal op-amp shown in the Figure.

 An ideal op-amp draws no current at both the input terminals i.e. I 1 = I2 = 0. Thus its
input impedance is infinite. Any source can drive it and there is no loading on the driver
stage.
 The gain of an ideal op-amp is infinite (∞), hence the differential input Vd =V1-V2 is
essentially zero for the finite output voltage Vo
 The output voltage Vo is independent of the current drawn from the output terminals.
Thus its output impedance is zero and hence output can drive an infinite number of
other circuits.

These properties are expressed generally as the characteristics of an ideal op-amp. The various
characteristics of an ideal op-amp are:
a) Infinite voltage gain: (AOL = ∞)

It is denoted as AOL. It is the differential open loop gain and is infinite for an ideal op-amp.

b) Infinite input impedance: (Rin = ∞)

The input impedance is denoted as Rin and is infinite for an ideal op-amp. This ensures that no
current can flow into an ideal op-amp.

c) Zero output impedance: (Ro = 0)

The output impedance is denoted as Ro and is zero for an ideal op-amp. This ensures that the
output voltage of the op-amp remains same, irrespective of the value of the load resistance
connected.

d) Zero offset voltage: (Vios = 0)

The presence of the small output voltage though V1 = V2 = 0 is called an offset voltage. It is
zero for an ideal op-amp. This ensures zero output for zero input signal voltage.

e) Infinite bandwidth

The range of frequency over which the amplifier performance is satisfactory is called its
bandwidth. The bandwidth of an ideal op-amp is infinite. This ensures that the gain of the op-
amp will be constant over the frequency range from dc (zero frequency) to infinite frequency.
So op-amp can amplify dc as well as ac signals.

f) Infinite CMRR: (p = ∞)

The ratio of differential gain and common mode gain is defined as CMRR. Thus infinite CMRR
of an ideal op-amp ensures zero common mode gain. Due to this common mode noise output
voltage is zero for an ideal op-amp.

g) Infinite slew rate: (S = ∞)

This ensures that the changes in the output voltage occur simultaneously with the changes in
the input voltage.

The slew rate is important parameter of op-amp. When the input voltage applied is step type
which changes instantaneously then the output also must change rapidly as input changes. If
output does not change with the same rate as input then there occurs distortion in the output.
Such a distortion is not desirable. Infinite slew rate indicates that output changes
simultaneously with the changes in the input voltage.
The parameter slew rate is actually defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage
with time and expressed in V/µs.

Its ideal value is infinite for the op-amp.

h) No effect of temperature: The characteristics of op-amp do not change with temperature.

Characteristics of Practical Op-Amp

In practice the Op-amp falls short of the ideal characteristics, however the following applies,
 Very high input resistance
 Very low output resistance
 Very large open loop voltage gain

For eg: A popular 741 Op-Amp has the following characteristics,

 Open loop voltage gain ~ 200000
 Input impedence ~ 2 MΩ
 Output impedence ~ 75 Ω
 Bandwidth for unit gain ~ 1 MHz
 CMRR ~ 90 dB
 Slew rate ~ 0.5 V/μs


Closed loop op-amp configuration

The output of a linear op-amp circuit has the same shape as the input signal. If the input is
sinusoidal, the output is sinusoidal. At no time during the cycles does the op-amp go into
saturation. The op-amp can be effectively utilized in linear applications by providing a
feedback from the output to the input, either directly or through another network. If the signal
feedback is out- of-phase by 180o with respect to the input, then the feedback is referred to as
negative feedback or degenerative feedback. Conversely, if the feedback signal is in phase
with that at the input, then the feedback is referred to as positive feedback or regenerative
feedback.
Operational amplifiers can have either a closed-loop operation or an open-loop operation. The
operation (closed-loop or open-loop) is determined by whether or not feedback is used. Without
feedback the operational amplifier has an open-loop operation. As an amplifier, the open-loop
operation is not practical because the very high gain of the operational amplifier creates poor
stability. (Noise and other unwanted signals are amplified so much in open-loop operation that
the operational amplifier is usually not used in this way.) Therefore, most operational
amplifiers are used with feedback (closed-loop operation). An op-amp that uses feedback is
called a closed-loop amplifier.

Closed-loop circuits can be of the inverting configuration or non-inverting

configuration. Since the inverting configuration is used more often than the non-inverting
configuration, the inverting configuration will be shown first. The most commonly used closed-
loop amplifier configurations are,

a) Inverting amplifier (Voltage shunt amplifier)

b) Non- Inverting amplifier (Voltage series Amplifier)

a) Inverting Operational Amplifier Configuration

Inverting Configuration Current flow in the operational circuit

The figure above shows an operational amplifier in a closed-loop, inverting amplifier

configuration. Resistor R2 is the feedback resistor. In fact, with the non-inverting input
grounded, the voltage at the inverting input to the operational amplifier is so small compared
to other voltages in the circuit that it is considered to be virtual ground. (Remember, in a
closed-loop operation the inverting and non-inverting inputs are at the same potential.) Virtual
ground is a point in a circuit which is at ground potential (0 V) but is not connected to ground.
Because the inverting input is at 0 V, there will be no current (for all practical purposes) flowing
into the operational amplifier from the connection point of R1 and R2. Given these conditions,
the characteristics of this circuit are determined almost entirely by the values of R1 and R2.

The input signal causes current to flow through R1. (Only the positive half cycle of the
input signal is shown and will be discussed.) Since the voltage at the inverting input of the
operational amplifier is at 0 volts, the input current (Iin) is computed by:

The output signal (which is opposite in phase to the input signal) causes a feedback current
(Ifdbk) to flow through R2. The left-hand side of R2 is at 0 volts (point A) and the right-hand
side is at Vout. Therefore, the feedback current is computed by:

(The minus sign indicates that Vout is 180o out of phase with Vin and should not be confused
with output polarity.)

Since no current flows into or out of the inverting input of the operational amplifier, any current
reaching point A from R1 must flow out of point A through R2. Therefore, the input current (Iin)
and the feedback current (Ifdbk) must be equal. Now we can develop a mathematical relationship
between the input and output signals and R1 and R2. Mathematically:

If you multiply both sides of the equation by R1:

If you divide both sides of the equation by Vout:

By inverting both sides of the equation:

You should recall that the voltage gain of a stage is defined as the output voltage divided by
the input voltage:

Vout
Acl =
Vin

Therefore, the closed loop voltage gain (Acl) of the inverting configuration of the operational
amplifier is given:

R2
Acl = −
R1

(As stated earlier, the minus sign indicates that the output signal is 180 o out of phase with the
input signal).

b) Non- Inverting amplifier (Voltage series Amplifier)

Non-inverting Configuration: The input signal (Vin) is applied directly to the non-inverting
(+) input of the operational amplifier. Feedback is provided by coupling part of the output
signal (Vout) back to the inverting (-) input of the operational amplifier. R1 and R2 act as voltage
divider that allows only a part of the output signal to be applied as feedback (Vfdbk).

Notice that the input signal, output signal, and feedback signal are all in phase. Just as
in the inverting configuration, the feedback signal is equal to the input signal (for all practical
purposes). The feedback signal is in phase with the input signal. Therefore:

Given this condition, you can calculate the gain of the stage in terms of the resistors (R1 and R2).

The gain of the stage is defined as:

Vout
Acl =
Vin

Since:

Then:

Vout
Acl =
Vfdbk

Mathematically, the relationship of the output signal, feedback signal, and voltage divider is:

If you divide both sides of the equation by Vout

By inverting both sides of the equation:

Separating the right-hand side:

Therefore, by substitution:

R
Acl = R2 + 1
1

Op-Amp as Voltage Follower

Output voltage is equal to and in phase with input. Voltage follower is like a buffer.

Output follows input Voltage follower

Vo =Vin

so the Gain, AF = Vo/Vin =1

we know that Gain of the Non-inverting configuration is, Acl = 1 + Rf/R1

Acl = 1, since (Rf = R1 = 0)

Voltage follower can be used in the following applications:

  It can be used to build active filter circuits.
 It can be used as buffers in logic gates.
 It is used in bridge circuits by transducers.
 Furthermore, it can also be used in sample and hold circuits.
There are numerous advantages of voltage followers. Some are listed as follows:

 It has a voltage gain of unity (one).

 It does not use any current from the input.
 It gives power and a current gain.
 Furthermore, it does not change the amplitude of the input signal.
 Likewise, it avoids loading effects.

Summing Amplifier or Op-Amp as a adder

The process of adding and subtracting voltages is performed by a summing amplifier. The
figure above shows an arrangement for the summation of three voltages v1, v2, and v3, applied
to input resistors R1, R2, and R3 respectively.

The three input currents i1, i2, and i3 may be equated to the current if through Rf

The currents are equal to

Since vA is approximately equal to zero (the virtual ground), the currents which are added can
be seen to be

The rearrangement of the equation gives

Subtraction occurs when the signs of some of the input voltages are negative. Note that the
total algebraic sum of the input voltages is inverted by the operational amplifier.

Difference Amplifier or Op-Amp as a Subtractor

The subtraction of the two input voltages is possible with the help of subtractor. The subtractor
using op-amp is shown in figure below. It is also called as difference amplifier. The input
signals applied are V1 and V2. Let us assume that the non-inverting terminal is at potential 'V'.
Due to virtual ground concept, the inverting terminal appears to be at the same potential 'V' as
shown in the circuit diagram. Let the current flowing through resistance R1 and R2 are I1 and
I2 respectively. Since input current to the op-amp is zero, the two currents flows through the
resistance Rf as shown in circuit diagram above. The current I 2 is given as,
From the above equation voltage 'V' can be calculated as

The current I1 is given as,

Simplify the equation,

Substituting the voltage 'V' from the equation we get,

If R1=R2

If R1=R2=Rf

Thus at the output we get subtraction of the two input voltages.

The subtractor circuits are used to solve various mathematical equations.

The Integrator Amplifier

The figure below shows an integrator. The capacitor of this circuit connects the inverting input
and the output signal points of the operational amplifier in such a manner that the output
potential varies as the time integral of the input potential.
 Integrator Circuit
For a capacitor,

where iC is the current through the capacitor, vC is the voltage across the plates, and C is the
capacitance. The inverting input is at a virtual ground (vn = 0) and currents in the resistor and
capacitor are equal (iin = iC). Apply Ohm's Law and substitution from the previous equation
(iC = C dvC/dt) gives,

Integrating both sides and rearranging gives

where v0 is the initial value of output voltage at time t = 0. For the moment assume that v0 has
zero value, when,
where T = RC is the time constant of the integrator.

The Differentiator Amplifier

The input signal to the differentiator is applied to the capacitor. The capacitor blocks any DC
content so there is no current flow to the amplifier summing point, X resulting in zero output
voltage. The capacitor only allows AC type input voltage changes to pass through and whose
frequency is dependent on the rate of change of the input signal.

Since the node voltage of the operational amplifier at its inverting input terminal is zero, the
current flowing through the capacitor will be given as:

The charge on the capacitor equals Capacitance times Voltage across the capacitor

Thus the rate of change of this charge is:

but dQ/dt is the capacitor current, i

from which we have an ideal voltage output for the op-amp differentiator is given as:
Op-Amp differentiator waveforms