DEFINTIONS

• Statistics has been defined differently by

different statisticians from time to time. The
reasons for a variety of definitions are two.
• In ancient times, statistics was confined only to
the affairs of the state. But in modern times, the
field of utility of statistics has widened
considerably. Hence, a number of old
definitions which were confined to a very
narrow field of enquiry were replaced by new
definitions which are much more
comprehensive and exhaustive.
 Contd…
• Statistics has been defined in two ways. Some
statisticians have defined it as statistical data
i.e.; numerical statement of facts, while others
define it as statistical methods, i.e.; complete
body of principles and techniques used in
collecting and analyzing such data.
 Some important definitions.
• Statistics as statistical data:
• Webster defines statistics as “classified facts
representing the conditions of people in a State
– especially those facts which can be stated in
numbers or in any other tabular or classified
arrangements.” This definition confines
statistics only to the data pertaining to a State.
• Bowley defines statistics as “numerical
statements of facts in any department of
enquiry placed in relation to each other.”
 Contd…
• An exhaustive definition is given by Prof.
Horace Secrist, “By statistics, we mean
aggregate of facts affected to a marked extent
by multiplicity of causes numerically expressed,
enumerated or estimated according to
reasonable standards of accuracy collected in a
systematic manner for a predetermined purpose
and placed in relation to each other.”
 Contd..

• Statistics as Statistical Method:

Bowley defines statistics in the following three
ways:
• Statistics may be called the science of
counting.
• Statistics may be rightly called the science of
averages.
• Statistics is the science of the measurement of
social organism.
 Contd…

• But none of Bowley’s definition is adequate.

Firstly, Statistics is not merely confined to the
collection of data as other aspects like
Presentation, analysis and interpretation are also
covered by it.
• Secondly, averages are only a part of statistical
tools used in the analysis of the data. Others
being dispersion, skewness, correlation etc.
• Finally, his definition restricts the application of
statistics to Sociology alone. But in modern days,
statistics is used in almost all the fields.
 Contd…
• According to Boddington, “Statistics is the
science of estimates and probabilities.” This
definition constitutes only a part of statistical
methods.
• According to King, “Statistics is the method of
judging collective, natural or social phenomenon
from the results obtained from the analysis or
enumeration or collection of estimates.”
• Lovitt defines statistics as the “Science which
deals with the collection, classification and
tabulation of numerical facts as the basis for
explanation, description and comparison of
phenomenon.”
 Contd….
• The best definition is given by Croxton and
Cowden. According to them, “Statistics is
defined as the science which deals with the
collection, analysis and interpretation of
numerical data.”
 FUNCTIONS OF STATISTICS
It presents the facts in a definite form:
Statistics presents facts in a precise and definite
from by expressing it in the numerical or
quantitative from. For e.g., the statement ‘the
number of students passed in statistics paper in
NUALS in the year 2025-26 was higher than that in
2024-25 will not give a clear idea of the situation.
However, the statement ‘the number of students
who passed in statistics paper in NUALS in the year
2025-26 was 54 as compared to the year 2024-25
in which the number of students passed was 50
conveys a definite information.
 Contd…
• It simplifies a mass of figures: Statistics helps in
condensing mass of data into few significant
figures. Hence, the statistical methods present
meaningful overall information of the mass of
data.
• It helps in formulating and testing of
hypothesis: Statistical methods are extremely
helpful in formulating and testing hypothesis to
develop new theories. For e.g., whether students
have benefited from extra coaching can be tested
by appropriate statistical tools.
 Contd…
• It helps in prediction: Statistical methods
provide helpful means of forecasting future
events. For e.g., a cement manufacturer can
predict how much cement he should produce in
2022 based on the demand for it in the current
year.
• It helps in formulation of suitable policies:
Statistics provide the basic material for framing
suitable policies for the Government and other
agencies. For e.g., the data regarding population
helps in determining the future needs such as
food, clothing etc.
 Contd…
• It facilitates comparison: Statistical methods
provide comparison for same kind of figures. For
e.g., if we know the average marks of students of
2 batches for a particular subject, we can
compare the average marks and conclude
students of which semester is better in that
subject.
•
 LIMITATIONS
• Statistics and its techniques are widely used in
every branch of knowledge. W.I. King rightly
said: “Science of statistics is the most useful
servant, but only of great value to those who
understand its proper use. The scope of statistics is
very wide and it has great utility; but these are
restricted by its limitations. Following are the
important limitations of statistics.
 Contd…
Statistics does not deal with individual items:
statistics deals with groups or aggregates only
and the study of an individual fact lies outside
the scope of statistics. For example the mark
secured by a student in legal history is 60 does
not constitute a statistical statement, where as
the average marks secured by students of 2024
batch in legal history is 65 constitute a statistical
statement.
 Contd…
Statistics deals with quantitative data: Statistics does
not study the data which cannot be measured in
quantitative terms. For e.g., average height of students
of a class, per capita income etc can be studied by the
statistical methods. But qualitative aspects such as
honesty beauty etc cannot be studied directly.
According to Prof. Horace Secrist,” Some
phenomenon cannot be quantitatively measured;
honesty, resourcefulness, integrity, goodwill, all
important in industry as well as in life, is generally not
susceptible to direct statistical measurement.” If we
convert the qualitative data into quantitative data,
comparison is possible
 Contd….
Statistical laws are true only on average:
statistical laws are not perfect as the laws of
physics or astronomy. The reason is that “statistical
laws are true only on average”. Statistics deals with
such phenomenon which is affected by multiplicity
of causes and it is not possible to study the effects
of each of these factors separately as is done under
experimental methods. It is due to this limitation in
statistical methods, the conclusions arrived at are
not perfectly accurate and consequently the same
conclusions cannot be arrived at under similar
conditions at all times. Statistics are the means and
not a solution to a problem.
 Contd..

Statistics does not reveal the entire story: since

most of the problems are affected by such factors
which are incapable of statistical analysis, it is not
possible to examine a problem in all its
manifestations only by a statistical approach.
According the Marshall, “statistics are like straw, of
which, I like every other economist have to make
bricks”.
 Contd…
Statistics is liable to be misused: the most
important limitation is that it must be used by
experts. According to Bowley, “Statistics only
furnishes a tool though imperfect, which is
dangerous in the hands of those who do not know
its use and deficiencies. W.I King states, “Statistics
are like clay of which you can make a god or devil
as you please”. He remarked “Science of Statistics
is the useful servant, but only of great value to those
who understand its proper use”
 Contd…
Statistics is a good tool to an expert. The greatest
limitation of statistics is that it deals with figures
which can be easily distorted, manipulated or
moulded by politicians, corrupt, dishonest or
unskilled workers for personal selfish motives.
Statistics neither prove nor disprove anything. It is
only a tool, if rightly used may prove quite useful
but if misused by unskilled and dishonest
statisticians might lead to very fallacious
conclusions.
 Origin and development of statistics
• Statistics, in a sense, is as old as the human society
itself. Its origin can be traced to the old days when it
was regarded as the ‘science of statecraft’ and was
the by-product of administrative activities of the
State.
• The word Statistics has been derived from the Latin
word ‘Status’, the Italian word ‘Statista’ the German
word ‘Statistik’, each of which means a political
state.
 Contd…
• In ancient times, the government used to collect
the information regarding the population and
property or wealth of the country. The former
enabling the government to have an idea of the
manpower of the country (To safeguard the
nations against external aggressions, if any) and
the latter provides a basis for introducing new
taxes and levies.
 Contd..

• In India, an efficient system of collecting official

and administrative statistics existed even more
than 2000 years ago, in particularly during the
reign of Chandragupta Maurya (324-300 BC).
From Kautilya’s Arsthashastra, it is known that
even before 300 BC, there existed a very good
system of collecting vital statistics (Data relates
to population). During Akbar’s reign (1556-1605
AD), Raja Thodormal the then land and revenue
minister, maintained the records of land and
agricultural statistics.
 Contd…
• In Aina–e–Abkari written by Abul Fazal (in 1596-97),
one of the nine gems of Abkar, we find detailed accounts
of the administrative and statistical surveys conducted
during Akbar’s reign.
• In Germany, the systematic collection of official
statistics originated towards the end of the 18th century.
Information regarding population and output (Industrial
and agricultural) were collected in order to have an idea
of the relative strength of different areas.
• In England, statistics are the outcome of the Napoleonic
war. The wars necessitated the systematic collection of
numerical data to enable the government to assess the
revenue and expenditure with greater precision and then
to levy new taxes in order to meet the cost of war.
 Contd..

• The origin of vital statistics was in the 17th

century. Capt. John Grant (1620-74) known as
the father of vital statistics, was the first man to
study the statistics of birth and death. The
computation of mortality table and the
calculation of expectation of life at different
ages lead to the idea of life insurance and the
first life insurance institution was founded in
London in 1968. The theoretical development of
the so called modern statistics came during the
17th century with the introduction of theory of
probability and theory of games and chances.
 Contd…
• The chief contributors being the mathematicians and
gamblers of France, Germany and England. Francis
Dalton (1822-1921, with his works on regression,
pioneered the use of statistical methods in the field
of biometry. Karl Pearson (1911) is the pioneer of
correlation analysis. His discovery of Chi-square
test, the first and the most important of test of
significance won for statistics a place as a science.
• Sir Ronald A. Fisher (1890-1962) known as the
father of statistics, placed statistics on a very sound
footing by applying it to various diversified fields
such as genetics, education, agriculture etc.
 Data Collection
Data may be obtained from either primary
source or secondary source.
Primary data means the data collected by an
individual himself. Such data are original in
character.
Whereas, secondary data is the data which are
not originally collected but rather obtained from
published or unpublished sources.
Data which are primary in the hands of one
becomes secondary in the hands of another.
 Contd..
For e.g., suppose an investigator wants to
collect data about the spending habits of
students in NUALS , if the investigator
collects the data himself or through his
agents adopting any suitable methods, the
data would constitute primary data for
him. On the other hand, if the student
council has already made a similar survey
and the investigator or his agent obtains
data from union office, such data would
constitute secondary data for him.
 Advantages of Secondary data
• It is highly convenient to use info which
someone else has complied. There is no need
for printing data collection forms, appointing
enumerators, editing and tabulating the results.
• Secondary data are much quicker to obtain
than the primary data.
• Secondary data may be available on some
subjects where it would be impossible to
collect primary data.
 choice between primary and secondary
Nature and scope of the enquiry
Availability of financial resources
Availability of time
Degree of accuracy desired
Collecting agency
 Methods of primary data collection
Direct Personal Interview:
Under this method, there is a face to face
contact with the persons from whom the info is
to be obtained (informants). The interviewer
asks them questions pertaining to the survey
and collects the desired information.
 Merits
Response is for encouraging because most of the
people are willing to supply info when approached
personally.
The info obtained by this method is more accurate
because the interviewer can clear the doubts of the
informants about certain questions.
It is also possible to collect supplementary info about
the informant’s personal characteristics and
environment.
 Contd….
• The questions about which the informant is
likely to be sensitive can be carefully
sandwiched between other questions by the
interviewer.

• The language of communication can be

adjusted to the status and educational level of
the person interviewed.
 Limitations
It may be very costly where the number of
persons to be interviewed is very large and they
are spread over a wide area.
The interviewer have to be thoroughly trained
and supervised, otherwise they may not be able
to obtain the desired info.
More time is required for collecting info by this
method as compared to other methods because
interviews can be held only at the convenience
of the informants.
 Indirect Oral Interview method
• Under this method, the investigator contacts 3rd parties
(Known as witness) capable of supplying the necessary
information. This method is generally adopted in those
cases where the information to be obtained is complex
in nature and the informants are not willing to respond
if approached directly.
• The correctness of information obtained depends upon:
• The type of person whose evidence is being recorded: If
the people do not know the full facts of the problem
under investigation, it will not be possible to arrive at
correct conclusions.
• The ability of the interviewers to draw out the
information from the witness by means of appropriate
questions and cross-examinations.
• The honesty of the interviewers who collect the
information
 Contd…
• Information through Correspondents
Under this method, the investigator appoints local
agents or correspondents in different places to
collect information. These correspondents collect
the information and transmit it to the central
office where the data are processed. Newspaper
agencies usually adopt this method.
 Mailed Questionnaire Method
Under this method, list of questions pertaining to
the survey is prepared and sent to various
informants by post. Request is made to the
informants through a covering letter to fill up the
questionnaire and sent it back within a specific
time.
The main advantages are
This method can be easily adopted where the field
of investigation is very vast and the informants are
spread over a wide geographical area.
On questions of personal nature, this method is
generally superior to other methods.
 Contd….
Major limitations are:
this method can be adopted only where informants
are literate
It involves some uncertainty about the response.
Cooperation on the part of informants may be
difficult to presume.
The information supplied by the informants may not
be correct and it may be difficult to verify the
accuracy.
 Contd…
• The success of this method depends upon the skill
with which the questionnaire is drafted and the
extent to which willing cooperation of the
informants are secured. To make this method work
effectively, the following suggestions are made
• The questionnaire should be so framed that it
doesn’t become an undue burden on the
respondents.
• Self addressed stamped envelop should be attached.
• The sample should be large.
• Attach gift coupen along with the questionnaire.
 Schedule Method
Under this method , the enumerators contact the
informants, get replies to the questions contained
in the schedule and fill them in their own
handwriting.
The essential difference between the mailed
questionnaire method and schedule method is that
the questionnaire is sent to the informants by post
and it is filled by the informants himself. But in
scheduled method, the enumerators carry the
schedule personally to the informants and
enumerators fill the questionnaire/schedule.
 Contd..
Merits
It can be adopted in the case of illiterates.
Very little non response as the enumerators go
personally to the field.
More reliable information.
Demerits
Compared to other methods, this method is very
costly because the enumerators are generally
paid persons.
The success of this method depends upon the
training imparted to the enumerators..
 CENSUS METHOD
Under the census method or complete enumeration survey
method, data are collected from each and every unit of the
population or universe. For e.g., if an investigator wants to
calculate the average wage of workers in a particular
factory, he should collect the data related to wages of each
and every workers in the factory
Merits of Census Method
• Data are obtained from each and every unit of the
population.
• The results obtained are likely to be more
representative, accurate and reliable.
• It is an appropriate method of obtaining info on certain
things like age, group of workers, educational level etc.
 SAMPLING
Sampling is simply the process of learning
about the population on the basis of the
sample drawn from it. Thus, in the sampling
technique, instead of every unit of the
universe, only a part of the universe is
studied and the conclusions are drawn on that
basis for the entire universe.
For e.g., a housewife examines only 2 or 3
grains of boiling rice to know whether the
entire pot of rice is ready or not.
 ESSENTIALS OF SAMPLING
For the sample results to have any meaning, it is necessary
that a sample should possess the following essentials:
Representativeness: A sample should be so selected that, it
truly represents the universe. To ensure representativeness,
random method of selection should be used.
Adequacy: the size of the sample should be adequate;
otherwise it may not represent the characteristics of the
universe.
Independence: all items of the sample should be selected
independently of one another; then only all items of the
universe should have the same chance of being selected in
the sampling.
Homogeneity: here, it means that there is no basic
difference in the nature of the units of the universe and that
of the sample
 Methods of sampling

Methods of Sampling

Probability Non-Probability

Simple Stratified Systematic Cluster Judgement Convenient quota

 CONTD..

Various methods of sampling can be grouped under 2

broad heads:-
Probability sampling ( random sampling){ simple
random, systematic, cluster form, strict form}
Non-probability sampling (non random sampling){
judgment, convenient}
• Probability sampling methods are those in which
every item in the universe has a non chance or
probability of being chosen for the sampling. This
implies that selection of sample item is independent
of the person making the study.
• Non probability sampling methods are those in
which do not provide every item in the universe
with a non chance of being included in the
sampling.
 Contd…

• Different Methods of Probability sampling

are:

• Simple Random Sampling

• Stratified Random Sampling

• Systematic Sampling

• Cluster Sampling
 Simple random sampling
• Simple random sampling refers to that sampling
technique in which each and every unit of the
population has an equal opportunity of being
selected in the sample. Two methods were used to
select the sample:
• Lottery method
• Random Number Table method
• Lottery Method: In lottery method, all items of the
universe are numbered or named on separate slips of
paper having identical sides, shape, colour etc. These
slips are then folded and mixed up in a bowl. A
blindfold selection is then made of the number of
slips required to substitute the desired sample size
 Contd…
• Merits:
• Since the selection of items in the sample depends entirely
on chance, there is no possibility of personal bias affecting
the results.
• As size of the sample increases, it becomes increasingly
representative of the population.
• Demerits:
• The use of simple random sampling necessitates a
completely catalogued universe from which to draw the
sample. But, it is often difficult for the investigator to have
up to date list of all the items of the population to be
sampled.
• From the point of view of field survey, it has been claimed
that cases selected by random sampling tend to be too
widely dispersed geographically and that the time and cost
of collecting data become too large.
 Stratified sampling
Under this method, the universe is subdivided into
different groups (Strata) and a sample is then
chosen independently from each group by either
lottery method or random table method.
Stratification is based on some common
characteristics of the data. For example, if we want
to collect data regarding the consumption pattern of
people in India, the country is divided into different
states. Again, states are divided into different
districts. Districts are then divided into zones.
Zones are then divided into Wards, etc. And from
each part, a sample may be taken at random.
 Contd…
• Next step is to select the sample size within each
stratum. Usually proportionate stratified sampling is
used. It means that the number of items drawn from
each stratum is proportional to the size of the strata.
The population is divided into three groups, say, A,
B, C and each group consist of 300, 600 and 900
people respectively. From these 3 groups, sample
size 600 is to be selected.
• Based on proportionate stratified sampling
technique,
• A=(300 x 600)/1800=100
• B=(600 x 600)/1800=200
• C=(900 x 600)/1800=300
From Group A, 100 samples, … from Group B, 200 samples and
from Group C, 300 samples are selected.
Merits
Since the population is first divided into various strata, then a
sample has to be drawn from each stratum, there is a little
possibility of any essential group of population being completely
excluded. (More representativeness)
Each stratum is so framed that it consists of uniform or
homogeneous items. So, greater accuracy is there in the
selection of samples. (Greater Accuracy)
As compared to random sample method, stratified samples have
more geographical concentration, i.e.; units from the different
strata may be selected in such a way that all of them are
localised in one geographical area.
disadvantage of this method is that, if proper stratification of the
population is not done, the sample may have the effect of bias.
• It is formed by selecting one unit at random and then
selecting additional units at evenly spaced intervals until
the sample has been formed. This method is popularly used
in those cases where a complete list of the population from
which the sample is to be drawn is available.
• The list may be prepared in alphabetical, geographical,
numerical or some other order. The items are serially
numbered. The first item is selected at random by lottery
method. Subsequent items are selected by taking every kth
item from the list. K refers to sampling interval or sample
ratio, i.e.; ratio of population size to the size of the sample.
• k=N/n
• Where k is sampling interval, N is the size of the universe
and n is the sample size.
 Cluster or multi stage sampling
Under this method, the random selection is made of
primary, intermediate and final units from a given
population of stratum.
There are several stages in which the sampling process is
carried out.
At first stage, units are sampled by some suitable
methods such as simple random sampling.
When a sample of second stage unit is selected from
each of the selected first stage units, again by some
suitable method which may be same as or different from
the method employed for the first stage units. Further,
stages may be added as required.
 Contd…
For example, suppose we want to take a sample of 500
households from the state of Kerala.
At the first stage, the state may be divided into number of
districts and a few districts selected at random.
At the second stage, each selected district may be subdivided
into number of villages and a sample of village may be taken
at random.
At the third stage, a number of households may be selected
from each of the villages selected at the second stage.
The advantages of this method are:
It introduces flexibility in the sampling method.
Sub-division of the second stage units are carried out for only
those first stage units which are included in the sample.
 Contd…

The advantages of this method are:

It introduces flexibility in the sampling method.
Sub-division of the second stage units are carried out
for only those first stage units which are included in the
sample.
Non-Probability Sampling
Judgement Sampling: In this method, the choice of the
sample items depends exclusively on the judgement of
the investigator.
In other words, the investigator exercises this
judgement in the choice and includes those items in the
sample which he thinks are most typical of the universe
with regard to the characteristics under investigation.
 Contd..
e.g.; If a sample of ten students is to be from a class of
60 for analyzing the spending habits of the students, the
investigator would select 10 students who in his opinion
are representative of the class.
Limitations
This method is not scientific because the population
units to be sampled may be affected by personal
prejudice or bias of the investigator. For example, if an
investigator holds the view that the wages of workers in
a certain establishment are very low and if he adopts
judgement sampling method, he may include only those
workers whose wages are low and thereby establish his
point of view which may be far from the truth.
 Contd…

Convenient Sampling
A convenient sample is obtained by selecting convenient
population units. The method of convenient sampling is also
called ‘chunk’. A chunk refers to that fraction of the
population being investigated which is selected neither by
probability nor by judgement sampling, but by convenience.
The sample obtained from readily available list like telephone
directory is a convenient sample.
For example, if a person is to submit a project report on labour
management relation in textile industry and he takes a textile
mill near to his office and interviews some people over there,
he is following the convenient sampling method.
Convenient sampling is often used for making piolet study or
pre-testing the questionnaire.
 Contd…

Quota Sampling
It is a type of judgement sampling and commonly
used sampling technique in non-probability category.
In a quota sample, quotas are set up according to
some specified characteristics. Each interviewer is
then asked to interview a certain number of persons
which constitute his quota. Within the quota, the
selection of sample items depends on personal
judgement. For example, in a radio listening survey,
the interviewer may be asked to interview people
living in a certain area. Quotas may consist of
housewives, farmers, children etc. Within theses
quotas, interviewer is free to select the sample.
 Classification & Tabulation of Data
 Classification of data
The process of arranging things in groups or
classes according to their common
characteristics is called classification of data.
According to Horace Secrist, “Classification
is the process of arranging data into
sequences and groups according to their
common characteristics or separating them
into different but related parts.
 Contd..

 Requisites of a Good Classification

The main characteristics of a good classification are:
It should be exhaustive: Classification must be
exhaustive in the sense that each and every item in
the data must belong to one of the classes.
It should be unambiguous: Classification is meant
for removing ambiguity. It is necessary that various
classes should be so defined that there is no room for
doubt or confusion.
It should be mutually exclusive: Each item of the
given data should fit only in one class. In other
words, the classes must not overlap
 Contd..
It should be homogeneous: The items included in each
class must be homogeneous. Otherwise, there may be
further classification into sub groups.
Purpose of Classification of data
 It condenses the mass of data and ignores the
unnecessary details, thereby making available input
data to study or survey.
 It facilitates comparison between data.
 It helps in studying the relationship between several
characteristics.
 It facilitates further statistical treatments.
 It helps in preparing the data for tabulation.
 Contd..

 It presents facts in a simple form.

 It brings out clearly the points of similarity and
dissimilarity.
Types of Classification
Quantitative Classification: When the basis of
classification is according to differences in quantity, the
classification is called quantitative classification. In
other words, quantitative classification is made
according to numerical size. A quantitative classification
is the classification which is based on such
characteristics which are capable of quantitative
measurement such as height, weight, marks obtained etc
of individuals. Here, height, weight etc is a variable and
the number of persons indicates frequency.
 Contd..
 Temporal Classification / Chronological

When the basis of classification is according to

differences in time, the classification is called
temporal or chronological classification. For e.g., the
students who got first division during the last three
years are classified year wise.

 Spatial / Geographical Classification:

When the basis of classification is according to

geographical location or place, such classification is
called spatial or geographical classification. For e.g.,
the crimes rate in different states.
 Contd..

Qualitative Classification:
When the basis of classification is according to
characteristics or attributes like social status etc, it is
called qualitative classification. For e.g., educated and
uneducated persons, married and unmarried persons.
Classification of this nature is of two types:
1. Simple classification
2. Manifold classification
If the data are classified only into two categories
according to the presence or absence of only one
attribute, such type of classification is known as simple
or twofold or dichotomous classification.
 Contd….
For e.g., the population of India maybe divided
into males and females.
Manifold classification is a type of classification
where more than two attributes are involved.
For e.g., when the population of males and
females are further subdivided into literates and
illiterates, we find there two attributes under the
study.
 Tabulation of Data
The last stage in the compilation of data is tabulation.
After the data have been collected and classified, it is
essential to put them in the form of tables.
Tabulation is a scientific process used in setting of the
collected data in an understandable form. According to
Prof. Cuttle, “the logical listing of related quantitative
data in vertical columns and horizontal rows of
numbers with sufficient explanatory and qualifying
words, phrases and statements in the form of title,
headings and explanatory notes to make clear the full
meaning, context and origin of the data.”
 Objectives of tabulation
To simplify the complex data:
In the process of tabulation, the unnecessary
details are avoided. All tabular data are presented
in such a manner that they become more
meaningful and can be easily understood by a
common man.
To clarify the objective of investigation:
The purpose of tabulation is to arrange the data
in easily assessable form, the answers with which
the investigation is concerned.
 Contd…

To facilitate comparison:
It facilitates comparison of data shown in
rows and columns. Sometimes, comparable
figures are placed in columns or rows.
To depict trend and pattern of data:
Tabulation of data shows the trend of
information under the study. It reveals the
patterns within the figures which cannot be
understood in a descriptive form of
presentation.
 Contd..
To help reference for future studies:
Data arranged in tables with titles and table
numbers can be easily identified and made use of
as source reference for future use and studies.
To facilitate statistical analysis:
It is only after classification and tabulation that
the statistical data becomes fit for analysis and
interpretation. Various statistical measures such
as averages, dispersion, correlation etc can be
calculated from the data which is systematically
classified and tabulated.
 Difference between classification & Tabulation
 Classification of data is a process of statistical
analysis while tabulation is a process of
presentation.
 Classification is the basis for tabulation because
the data is classified first and then tabulated.
 In classification, the data is divided into various
groups and sub-groups based on their
similarities and dissimilarities, while tabulation
is a process of arranging the classified data in
rows and columns with suitable heads and sub-
heads.
 Essential Parts of a Statistical Table
 Table Number:
A table should be numbered for identification,
especially, when there are a large number of tables in a
study. The number may be put at the centre above the
title.
 Title of the Table:
Every table should have a title. It should be clear, brief
and self-explanatory. The title should be set in bold
type so as to give it prominence.
 Stub / Row Heading:
Each row of the table must have a heading. The
headings of the rows are called stubs. Stubs clarify the
figures in the rows. As far as possible, the items should
be condensed so that they can be included in a single
row.
 Contd..
 Caption / Column Heading:
A table has many columns and the sub-headings of
the columns are called captions or column headings.
They should be well-defined and brief.
 Body of the Table:
It is the most vital part of a table. It contains
numerical values. It should be made as
comprehensive as possible. The actual data should be
arranged in such a manner that any figure maybe
readily located.
 Unit of Measurement:
The unit of measurement should be stated along with
the title, if this is uniform throughout. If different
units have been adopted, then they should be stated
along the stub or caption.
 Contd..
Source Notes:
A note at the bottom of the table should always
be given to indicate the primary source as well as
the secondary source from where the data has
been taken, particularly when there is more than
one source.
Footnotes and References:
It is always placed at the bottom of the table. It is
a statement containing explanation of some
specific items which cannot be understood by the
reader from the title, captions and stubs.