i

TITLE PAGE

THE RELIANCE ON SOCIAL MEDIA FOR HEALTH MESSAGES AMONG

UNDERGRADUATES IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA: A
COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY OF THE EBOLA OUTBREAK AND COVID-19
PANDEMIC

BY

UKA CHIKWESIRI OBASI

2019/247788

A RESEARCH PROJECT
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION, UNIVERSITY
OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (B.A. HONS) DEGREE IN MASS
COMMUNICATION.

PROJECT SUPERVISOR: MR THANKGOD E. UGWUANYI

APRIL, 2024
 ii

CERTIFICATION

This research project is an original work of UKA CHIKWESIRI OBASI, with the registration

number, 2019/247788, it satisfies the requirements for presentation of research report in the

Department of Mass Communication, University Of Nigeria, Nsukka.

_______________________ ______________
MR THANKGOD E. UGWUANYI Date

_______________________ ______________
PROF. JOSEPH. O. WOGU Date
(Head of Department)

_______________________ ______________
(External Examiner) Date
 iii

APPROVAL PAGE

THE RELIANCE ON SOCIAL MEDIA FOR HEALTH MESSAGES AMONG

UNDERGRADUATES IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA: A
COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY OF THE EBOLA OUTBREAK AND COVID-19
PANDEMIC

BY

UKA CHIKWESIRI OBASI

2019/247788

THIS PROJECT HAS BEEN APPROVED FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF

ARTS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION, UNIVERSITY OF
NIGERIA NSUKKA

------------------------------------------------------------

MR THANKGOD E. UGWUANYI

SUPERVISOR
 iv

DEDICATION

I dedicate this research work to God Almighty and to my wonderful parents Mr. Uka U. Oken

and Mrs. Grace Uka.

 v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express heartfelt gratitude to all who contributed to the success of this work. Firstly, my

parents, Mr. Uka U. Oken and Mrs. Grace Uka, for enabling my education at this prestigious

university. Also, my siblings, more especially Chidinma Uka and Chijioke Uka, for all their

support.

My profound gratitude extends to my supervisor, Mr ThankGod E. Ugwuanyi for his

profound contribution, patience, guidance and mentorship throughout the process of carrying out

this study, without which this study wouldn't exist, God bless you sir.

I express my deepest appreciation to the Head of Department, Prof. Joseph O. Wogu. I

also extend my gratitude to my all lecturers for making my academic journey a success. My

sincere appreciation goes to Prof. Luke I. Anorue, Prof Greg A. Ezea, Prof Micheal Onyekachi

Ukonu, Prof. Mrs. Chinwe Okpoko, Prof. Barr. Peter I Nwokolo, Dr. Mrs Ozioma P. Nwokedi,

Dr. Charles Eze, Dr Celestine Gever, Dr Victor Nwogbo, Dr Alphonsus C. Ugwu, Dr. Mrs.

Omanwa Muobike, Ven. Dr. Joel Chinedum Ugwoke, Dr Robert Ezeanwu, Dr. Mrs. Blessing N.

Chinweobo Onuoha, Mr. Uchenna Ogemdi Eze, Dr Chidiebere A. Nwachukwu, Dr Edith Ugochi

Ohaja, Dr. Uchenna C. Anorue, Dr. Ikechukwu Elike, Dr. Christian Ogbonna Alozie, Dr Ijeoma

Ajero, Mr Bassey Victor Ikot-Osin, Mr. Uchenna Ogemdi Eze, Dr. Stephen C. Ogbodo, Dr

Emeka S. S. Orekye, Dr Ikechukwu Ugbor, Mrs. Uzoma Nwogbo, Dr. Martins N. Ezeugwu, Mrs

Chinyere C. Ugwulor Onyinyechi, Dr. Ndubuisi Nnaji, Mr. Somtochukwu V. Okeke, Mr Justice

Ugochukwu Ololo, Mrs. Behinda Anyakoha, Mrs. Olarenwaju A. Mgboji, Mrs. Ukamaka C.

Akata, Miss Ekene Nzekwe Mr. Kenechukwu Ugwu, among others.

 vi

I am also very grateful to my friends and colleagues for all their love and support, more

especially Kingsley N. Emmanuel, Nwankwo Kelechi, Eze Nelson Emeka, Agbo Chidiebere,

Obianghanwa Paul Chidiebere, Ojobor M. Malachi, Okwor-Nnaji Victor and Okwa Ihuoma

Jessica.
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page - - - - - - - - - - i

Certification page - - - - - - - - - ii

Approval page - - - - - - - - - iii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - - iv

Acknowledgements - - - - - - - - - v

Table of contents - - - - - - - - - vii

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study - - - - - - - 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - 4

1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - - - - 4

1.4 Research Questions - - - - - - - - 5

1.5 Significance of the Study - - - - - - - 6

1.6 Scope of the Study - - - - - - - - 7

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms - - - - - - 7

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Review - - - - - - - - 10

 viii

2.1.1 An Overview of Social media and Health Communication - - - 10

2.1.2 Ebola Outbreak - - - - - - - - 15

2.1.3 COVID-19 Pandemic - - - - - - - 17

2.1.4 Misinformation on Social Media During the Ebola outbreak and COVID-19

Pandemic in Nigeria. - - - - - - - - - 20

2.2. Empirical Review- - - - - - - - - 23

2.3. Theoretical Review - - - - - - - - 32

2.4. Theoretical framework - - - - - - - - 35

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction - - - - - - - - - 37

3.2 Research Design - - - - - - - - 37

3.3 Population of Study - - - - - - - - 38

3.4 Sample Size - - - - - - - - - 39

3.5 Sampling Technique - - - - - - - - 41

3.6 Instrument of Data Collection - - - - - - - 47

3.7 Validity and Reliability of Research Instrument - - - - 47

3.8 Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - 48

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

 ix

4.1 Data presentation and Analysis - - - - - - - 50

4.2 Description of sample - - - - - - - - 50

4.3 Analysis of Demographic Data - - - - - - - 51

4.4 Analyses of Psychographic Data - - - - - - - 53

4.5 Discussion of Findings - - - - - - - - 72

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary - - - - - - - - - 81

5.2 Conclusion - - - - - - - - - 83

5.3 Recommendations - - - - - - - - 85

5.4 Limitations of the Study - - - - - - - 86

References - - - - - - - - - - 87

APPENDIX - - - - - - - - - 90
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ABSTRACT

This study analyzes the reliance on social media for health messages by University of Nigeria,
Nsukka (UNN) undergraduates in 2023: A case study of the Ebola outbreak and COVID-19
pandemic. It examines the extent of this reliance and explores how their experience during the
Ebola outbreak influenced their reliance during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study utilizes the
Uses and Gratification Theory and the Media Dependency Theory to understand patterns and
trends in social media reliance for health messages among UNN undergraduates over time,
shedding light on the influence of social media on health-related behaviors, attitudes, and
perceptions. The research adopts a quantitative method, using a survey research design and
questionnaires, and utilizes a multi-stage sampling technique resulting in a sample size of 367
respondents. Findings reveal that a majority of UNN undergraduates heavily rely on social media
for health messages, with a notable increase in reliance during recent health crises. Twitter,
Facebook, and Instagram are identified as primary platforms for health messages, with
perceptions of credibility improving over time. The study highlights the significant influence of
social media platforms on the health-related behaviors, attitudes, and perceptions of UNN
undergraduates during both health crises, indicating their role in shaping public responses to
public health emergencies.

Key words: Social media, COVID-19 pandemic, ebola outbreak, misinformation, health
communication.
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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Over the years, there has been a significant change in health communication, with social

media platforms serving as conduits for disseminating health messages. Health communication

refers to the dissemination of information aimed at promoting public understanding of health-

related issues, encouraging positive health behaviors, and facilitating communication between

healthcare providers and the community. It involves conveying messages to individuals or

communities to raise awareness, educate, and encourage positive health practices. In much

simpler terms, Kavut (2022) defines health communication as a primary social process in which

people give persuasive health information. Health communication has originally been through

the broadcast and print media, however the social media have changed that narrative. The use of

social media for health communication is assumed particularly prominent among young people

who have been opportuned to witness the evolution of information communication technology in

the 21st century. The advent of the internet brought to life many possibilities in Information and

communication technology, most prominent and captivating being the social media.

The social media not only link users worldwide, but avails them the opportunity to

generate and share content, making the social media a depot of information. With little regulation

and free access, the social media to many have become a daily source of information (health

messages included), leading to the constant debate of the possibility of the traditional media

being replaced by the social media. Ukonu (2022) asserts that the social media as a mass
 2

communication platform has come to stay and has become relevant in today's society due to

many affordances that come with it.

Rajshri and Malloy (2023) maintains that Social media provides an accessible and

convenient platform for sharing health information with large audiences. Health organisations

and professionals use social media to disseminate information on a wide range of topics,

including disease prevention, healthy lifestyles, and treatments. Gunther (2010) affirms that

Social media have been widely used for health-related purposes, especially during the Ebola and

COVID-19 pandemics. Social media platforms like facebook, Instagram, twitter, tik-tok,

whatsapp etc are used by healthcare companies for communication with people. Healthcare

companies publish information on social media sites regarding health issues, disease, causes of

disease, their precautions and treatments also. Saxena (2020) notes that to increase health

communication on social media sites each and every company has their pages and accounts.

However, since any other user is able to generate, post and share health messages,

misinformation becomes easy. Moorhead et al. (2017) posit that although there are several

benefits to the use of social media for health communication, the information exchanged needs to

be monitored for quality and reliability, and the users' confidentiality and privacy need to be

maintained. This responsibility may apply to health organizations communicating through the

social media, but the average user feels no responsibility or obligation to ensure

credibility/reliability of health messages he/she generates and shares on social media.

The Nigerian presence in the social media sphere is overwhelming and steadily

increasing. According to Kemp (2023), as of January 2023, Nigeria has 31.6 million people

using social media, making up 14.3% of the population. Additionally, there are 193.9 million
 3

active cellular mobile connections, accounting for 87.7% of the total population. WhatsApp

emerged as the leading platform, with nearly 95% of social media users in Nigeria, followed by

Facebook, YouTube, and Instagram. This indicates active involvement of a sizeable population

of the Nigerian population in the social media.

For optimum representation of social media users in Nigeria, undergraduates provides a

perfect blend of demographic disparities of the social media population. Undergraduates are a

demographic characterized by a heightened engagement with digital technologies. Against this

backdrop, this research embarks on an in-depth exploration of the reliance on social media for

health messages, with a specific focus on undergraduates at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka

(UNN) in the year 2023. This study attempts to understand how misinformation from social

media in past experiences have influenced the individual's reliance on these platforms for health

information. Adopting a comparative case study approach and delving into the distinct contexts

of the Ebola and COVID-19 outbreaks. By scrutinizing these two major health crises, each

marked by unique challenges and misinformation as a common challenge, the research aims to

unravel how UNN undergraduates navigate, consume, and interpret health-related messages in

the era of pervasive social media use.

As the global community grapples with unprecedented health challenges, the role of social

media in shaping public perceptions, disseminating information, and influencing health-related

decision-making become pivotal. Creating the need for understanding the dynamics of the

reliance on social media for health messages given the alternative sources health information

provided by the traditional media. This will shed light on the evolving patterns of information

consumption, the credibility of sources, and the potential impact on health behaviors.
 4

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Misinformation poses significant risks to every endeavor, especially when concerned

with health matters. The hazards of misinformation and rumors became evident during Nigeria's

experiences with the Ebola outbreak and COVID-19 pandemic, necessitating efforts to address

this problem for future occurrences. Social media, due to its user-generated content (UGC)

nature is rife with misinformation. Given that undergraduates are likely active participants in

social media communication, this research aims to evaluate the extent to which undergraduates

engage with social media for health information and the credibility of such information.

Additionally, the study seeks to identify the primary social media platforms and sources of

information utilized by undergraduates at UNN, investigate their reactions to health messages

received through social media, and determine whether they engage in fact-checking to verify the

credibility of health information or simply accept all information received. Understanding these

dynamics will provide valuable insights into how to effectively combat the spread of

misinformation on social media.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The broad aim of this study is to analyze the reliance on social media for Health Messages

among undergraduates in the University of Nigeria Nsukka, comparing their Ebola outbreak and

COVID-19 pandemic social media experience.

The specific objectives were to:

 5

1. To investigate the patterns and trends in the reliance on social media for health messages

among UNN undergraduates in 2023, comparing their experiences during the Ebola

outbreak of 2014 and the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020.

2. To identify the primary social media platforms and information sources utilized by UNN

undergraduates for health information during these two health crises and to assess any

platform-specific differences.

3. To assess the perceived credibility and trustworthiness of health information

disseminated through social media platforms during the Ebola outbreak and COVID-19

pandemic as reported by UNN undergraduates.

4. To analyze the types of health-related content, misinformation, and rumors encountered

on social media by UNN undergraduates during these crises and to examine their

responses to such information.

5. To examine the influence of social media reliance on the health-related behaviors,

attitudes, and perceptions of UNN undergraduates during the Ebola outbreak and

COVID-19 pandemic, providing insights into the impact of social media on public health

communication.

1.4 Research Questions

1. How have UNN undergraduates in 2023 relied on social media for health messages

during the Ebola outbreak of 2014 and the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020, and how has

this reliance evolved over time?

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2. What are the primary social media platforms and sources that UNN undergraduates turn

to for health information during these two health crises, and are there differences in

platform preference?

3. How do UNN undergraduates perceive the credibility and trustworthiness of health

information received through social media during the Ebola outbreak and COVID-19

pandemic?

4. What types of health-related content, misinformation, and rumors have UNN

undergraduates encountered on social media during these health crises, and how have

they responded to this information?

5. To what extent has the reliance on social media for health messages influenced the

health-related behaviors, attitudes, and perceptions of UNN undergraduates during the

Ebola outbreak and COVID-19 pandemic?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The significance of the study lies in its potential to offer profound insights into the

intersection of social media, health communication, and the decision-making processes of

University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN) undergraduates amidst the notable health crises of the

Ebola outbreak and COVID-19 pandemic in 2023. Understanding how students access and

interpret health information on social media is crucial for developing targeted health

communication strategies. The findings have implications for health policymakers, educators,

and communication professionals, guiding the development of informed interventions to enhance

health literacy and mitigate the spread of misinformation.

 7

This research contributes to the academic discourse on health communication by examining

how UNN undergraduates engage with social media for health information. The comparative

case study design, focusing on two distinct heath crises provides an understanding of evolving

patterns in information-seeking behavior and decision-making, offering a valuable addition to

existing literature and contribute to the broader field of health communication research.

Understanding how UNN undergraduates utilize social media for health information empowers

the student community as well as the public at large to make informed decisions about their

health. By identifying preferred sources and patterns of engagement, the study aids in fostering a

health-conscious environment within the university and the society, where students and the

public can contribute positively to public health initiatives.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The scope of the research is confined to undergraduates currently enrolled at the

University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN). Specifically, considering the diverse array of faculties,

disciplines, and year levels to ensure a comprehensive exploration of perspectives. The selection

of UNN as the central focus of the study is based on its standing as a significant higher education

institution in Nigeria. It serves an ideal population to explore the intersection of social media and

health communication due to it's diversity of population. This ensures a mix of diverse

perspectives and information-seeking behaviors.

1.7 Operational Definition of terms

1. Covid-19 virus: A highly contagious respiratory virus caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus,

leading to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It became a global pandemic in

2019-2020.
 8

2. Ebola virus: A highly contagious and often fatal virus that causes severe illness in

humans and other primates. It caused a widespread outbreak in west Africa in 2014.

3. Health communication: The dissemination of information aimed at promoting public

understanding of health-related issues, encouraging positive health behaviors, and

facilitating communication between healthcare providers and the community.

4. Health messages: Communications that convey information, advice, or guidance related

to various aspects of health and well-being.

5. Misinformation: False or misleading information that is spread, intentionally or

unintentionally, leading to incorrect beliefs or actions. In the context of this project, it is

related to health topics, such as viruses.

6. Outbreak: An outbreak refers to the occurrence of cases of a particular disease in a

community or region, exceeding what is normally expected. It can also refer to the

sudden increase in the prevalence of a particular phenomenon.

7. Pandemic: A pandemic is an outbreak of a disease that occurs over a wide geographic

area, affecting an exceptionally high proportion of the population. It involves the spread

of a contagious illness across multiple countries or continents and often requires a

coordinated international response to control and mitigate its effects.

8. Social media: Online platforms and technologies that enable users to create, share, and

exchange information and content. Examples include Facebook, Twitter, Instagram,

LinkedIn, etc.
 9

9. Traditional media: Traditional media refers to conventional means of communication that

existed before the advent of digital technologies. This includes newspapers, magazines,

radio, and television, which disseminate information through tangible, non-digital

formats.

10. User-generated content (UGC): Content created and shared by individuals, rather than

traditional producers or publishers. This can include text, images, videos, and other forms

of media contributed by users on various online platforms.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Review

This section looks into related concepts and gives clarification of the same. The literature

reviewed in this research is organized in the following subheadings:

2.1.1 An Overview of Social Media and Health Communication

2.1.2 Ebola Outbreak

2.1.3 COVID-19 Pandemic

2.1.4 Misinformation on Social Media During the Ebola outbreak and COVID-19 Pandemic in

Nigeria

2.2 Empirical Review

2.3 Theoretical Review

2.4 Theoretical Framework

2.1.1 An Overview of Social Media and Health Communication

Health Communication is a multidisciplinary field that explores the exchange of

information, ideas, and behaviors related to health among individuals, communities, and

healthcare providers. Rooted in public health, sociology, psychology, and communication

studies, it seeks to promote and enhance health literacy, facilitate informed decision-making, and

foster positive health outcomes. Ishikawa and Kiuchi (2010) assert that Health communication
 11

consists of interpersonal or mass communication activities focused on improving the health of

individuals and populations. In simpler terms, Kavut (2022) defines health communication as a

primary social process in which people give persuasive health information. Numerous definitions

of health communication exist, but for the purpose of this study, health communication is defined

as the dissemination of information aimed at promoting public understanding of health-related

issues, encouraging positive health behaviors, and facilitating communication between

healthcare providers and the community.

Effective health communication involves tailoring messages to diverse audiences,

considering cultural nuances, and utilizing various channels such as traditional media, digital

platforms, and interpersonal interactions. As an essential component of healthcare, it plays a

pivotal role in shaping health policies, promoting preventive measures, and improving patient-

provider relationships. Health communication traditionally relied on broadcast and print media,

but social media has revolutionized this landscape. The internet's emergence opened up

numerous opportunities in information technology, with social media being the most impactful

and engaging aspect.

Social media can be defined as online platforms and applications that enable users to

create, share, and exchange content in the form of text, images, videos, and other multimedia.

These digital channels facilitate real-time interaction and communication, allowing individuals

and organizations to connect, engage, and build virtual communities. Kaplan and Haenlein

(2010) define social media as a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological

and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user-

generated content. In clearer terms, Delwing (2010) describes social media as the wide range of
 12

Internet-based and mobile services that allow users to participate in online exchanges, contribute

user-created content, or join online communities.

Examples of social media platforms include Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn,

Snapchat, and YouTube, each offering unique features to support various types of content

sharing and communication. Facebook, for example, is a comprehensive platform that allows

users to share text, photos, videos, and links, while Twitter focuses on short-form text updates

and real-time conversations. Instagram is primarily visual, centered around sharing photos and

videos, while LinkedIn is geared towards professional networking and career development.

One significant characteristic of social media is its rapid communication capability, facilitating

instantaneous interactions and the capacity to engage with a large audience simultaneously.

Saxena (2020) highlights social media as the fastest medium of communication in the current

century. There is no doubt that social media have revolutionized communication, transcending

geographical boundaries and connecting people globally, cutting across personal interactions,

business promotions, educational resources dissemination, cultural exchanges, political

engagement, news dissemination, entertainment, activism and even health communication.

Health Communication is on the rise globally, with countries utilizing various media

channels such as radio, television, newspapers, pamphlets, posters, and advertisements.

However, digital media stands out as the most crucial medium, employed by every nation

worldwide. Digital media are not only easy to use but also good for effective communication.

Digital media includes smart phones, DVDs, websites, computer, laptop etc. Saxena (2020)

asserts that among all digital media, social media sites is the most popular one for effective

communication. Jha et al. (2016) explain that with the rapid evolution of the Internet and online
 13

social networking, health communication now incorporates dynamic exchanges of information

on a global scale.

According to Moorhead et al. (2023), the use of social media for health communication

refers to the general public, patients, and health professionals communicating about health issues

using social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter. Levac and O'Sullivan (2010)

acknowledge that social media holds considerable potential for health promotion and other health

intervention activities, as it addresses some of the limitations in traditional health communication

by increasing accessibility, interaction, engagement, empowerment and customization. It has

become an influential platform in the realm of health communication, fostering a dynamic

environment for disseminating health messages, sharing experiences, and shaping public

perceptions. The intersection of health communication and social media has created a complex

terrain with both favorable and difficult consequences.

One of the paramount advantages of utilizing social media for health communication lies

in its unparalleled reach. Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and others connect people

globally, enabling rapid dissemination of health messages. Health organizations leverage these

platforms to broadcast crucial updates, disseminate preventive measures, and raise awareness

about various health issues. This immediate and widespread outreach empowers individuals to

stay informed and make good decisions regarding their well-being.

The User generated content (UGC) nature of social media remains a distinguishing

feature, allowing users to generate and disseminate health messages to a vast audience. This has

provided an alternative to the hitherto traditional media in receiving health messages. With a

digital device and a social media profile, anyone can easily share useful information across to
 14

other users, this of course includes health messages. The power of mass communication here is

no longer reserved to the media professionals, as any social media user has the opportunity to

share useful information that can benefit the society.

However, challenges abound in the use of social media for Health Communication.

Wright et al. (2012) explains that information been more accessible to people due to the advent

of the Internet, however not all people have access to this technology, the skills to use it, or the

ability to interpret the available health information. The vast and unfiltered nature of social

media poses challenges in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of health messages shared.

Misinformation can spread rapidly, leading to misconceptions and potentially harmful practices.

The democratization of information on these platforms means that not all sources are equally

credible, necessitating a critical approach to evaluating the veracity of health-related content.

Another limitation of social media pertains to the digital divide in the population. Korp

(2006) highlights that socially disadvantaged groups often do not have access to new media and

social networking due to language, literacy disability or other barriers. Young adults cummulate

the greater population of social media users, more especially the Gen Z, owing to the fact that

they grew up in the age of digitalization and naturally keep up with the technological trends.

Socially disadvantaged groups largely refer to the rural population with limited access to the new

media.

The fusion of social media and health communication have reshaped how health

information is disseminated, received, and acted upon. The potential for widespread reach,

community building, and rapid dissemination of information is immense. However, it is essential

 15

to address challenges such as misinformation to harness the full potential of social media in

promoting public health and well-being.

2.1.2 Ebola Outbreak

According to Malvy et al. (2019), Ebola viruses are negative stranded RNA viruses that

belong to the Filoviridae family and are endemic to regions of west and equatorial Africa. These

public health pathogens are primarily transmitted by human-to-human contact with infected body

fluids and corpses and causes severe and acute systemic disease with high mortality. Jacob et al.

(2020) notes that Fruit bats of the Pteropodidae family are considered natural hosts, and the virus

is introduced to humans through close contact with the blood, secretions, organs, or other bodily

fluids of infected animals. Once in the human population, the virus can spread through direct

contact with the blood or secretions of infected individuals, as well as through contact with

surfaces and materials contaminated with these fluids.

The incubation period for Ebola ranges from 2 to 21 days, with symptoms typically

starting to appear between 8 and 10 days after exposure. Early symptoms are non-specific and

may include fever, fatigue, muscle pain, headache, and sore throat. As the disease progresses,

more severe symptoms manifest, such as vomiting, diarrhea, rash, impaired kidney and liver

function, and, in some cases, internal and external bleeding.

Outbreaks of Ebola have historically occurred in Central and West African countries. The

virus was first identified in 1976 during simultaneous outbreaks in Sudan and the Democratic

Republic of Congo, the virus gained notoriety for its high mortality rate and potential for large-

scale outbreaks. Ebola virus have substantial epidemic potential, as shown by the 2014–16 west

African outbreak. The outbreak was particularly devastating, affecting Guinea, Sierra Leone, and
 16

Liberia, with cases also reported in Nigeria, Senegal, and Mali with more than 28,000 confirmed

cases and 11,000 deaths.

According to Oyama and Okpara (2017), In 2004, the WHO recorded 842,000 deaths

from malaria, 531,000 deaths from heart diseases, 429,000 deaths from tuberculosis, 174,000

deaths from Diabetes, 38,000 deaths from cirrhosis of the liver, 1,456,000 deaths from lower

respiratory infections and 1,036,000 from diarrhoeal diseases. None of these diseases received

the kind of media attention that the Ebola Viral Disease received in 2014, even when it recorded

11,325 deaths from 15,261 laboratory-confirmed cases in 28,652 suspected cases in West Africa.

This shows the level of attention and concern the Ebola virus outbreak garnered.

Nigeria experienced its first Ebola case in July 2014 when Patrick Sawyer, a Liberian

government worker, traveled to Lagos while infected with the virus. This prompted an

immediate response from Nigerian health authorities. The government, in collaboration with

international organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) and Médecins Sans

Frontières (Doctors Without Borders), initiated emergency measures to contain the spread of the

virus. The traveler had been exposed to Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) in Liberia, had symptoms

during his journey, and died on July 25, 2014, after being admitted to a private hospital in Lagos.

Although authorities responded to the outbreak rapidly, there were an additional 19 EVD cases

in Lagos and a large city in the south of Nigeria, Port Harcourt. The WHO declared Nigeria EVD

free on October 20, 2014, after no new cases had been detected for 42 days (Althaus et al, 2015).

One notable aspect of Nigeria's response was the establishment of an Emergency Operations

Center (EOC) to coordinate efforts among various stakeholders. This centralized command

structure facilitated communication, resource allocation, and a swift response to suspected and
 17

confirmed cases. Contact tracing, isolation of affected individuals, and public awareness

campaigns became critical components of the strategy to curb the outbreak.

Efforts to contain Ebola in Nigeria faced challenges, including inadequate healthcare

infrastructure, a shortage of trained personnel, and public apprehension fueled by misconceptions

about the virus. Overcoming these challenges required a careful approach. Health workers

received specialized training, and isolation facilities were set up to manage cases effectively.

Communication strategies aimed at dispelling myths and educating the public about the nature of

Ebola played a crucial role in gaining community cooperation.

The role of social and traditional media in disseminating information cannot be

overlooked. Health authorities engaged with communities through various channels,

emphasizing preventive measures, symptoms of Ebola, and the importance of seeking medical

attention promptly. Community leaders, religious institutions, and local influencers played

pivotal roles in conveying trustworthy information and promoting adherence to public health

guidelines.

Ultimately, Nigeria's response to the Ebola outbreak was largely successful. The World

Health Organization declared the country Ebola-free in October 2014, just three months after the

initial case. The swift and coordinated actions, combined with effective communication and

international collaboration, were instrumental in preventing a widespread epidemic in Nigeria.

2.1.3 COVID-19 Pandemic

According to He et al. (2020), Coronaviruses (CoVs) are a group of highly diverse,

enveloped, positive‐sense, and single‐stranded RNA viruses. They cause several diseases

involving respiratory, enteric, hepatic, and neurological systems with vary severity among
 18

humans and animals. The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was caused by the novel

coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, significantly reshaped global health, economies, and daily life since

its emergence in late 2019. The World Health Organization (WHO) defined the SARS-CoV-2

virus outbreak as a severe global threat1.

The pathogen that causes COVID‐19 is a nCoV that was first identified in the late

January 2020, named SARS‐CoV‐2 (also known as 2019‐nCoV). Ciotti et al. (2020) defines

SARS-CoV-2 as a betacoronavirus, belonging to the subgenus Sarbecovirus. It is related to the

viruses responsible for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and Middle East

Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) It primarily spreads through respiratory droplets when an

infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks. The virus can also spread by touching surfaces

contaminated with the virus and then touching the face, emphasizing the importance of personal

hygiene and preventive measures. Kumar, [Link] al. (2020) highlights the main symptoms of

COVID‐19 which include fever, fatigue, and cough, which are similar to that of SARS‐CoV and

MERS‐CoV infected cases. There are some overlapping and discrete aspects of the pathology

and pathogenesis of these CoVs which cause severe diseases in humans.

The clinical spectrum of COVID-19 ranges from mild respiratory symptoms to severe

pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and, in some cases, death. Certain

populations, such as the elderly and those with underlying health conditions, are at a higher risk

of severe outcomes. The virus's ability to transmit asymptomatically further complicated efforts

to control its spread.

According to Lone and Ahmed (2020) The virus was first reported from Wuhan city in

China in December, 2019, which in less than three months spread throughout the globe and was
 19

declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 11th of March, 2020.

The pandemic's progression has unfolded in waves, with periods of surges and lulls influenced

by various factors, including public health measures, vaccination efforts, and the emergence of

new variants. Public health responses to COVID-19 have varied globally but commonly include

testing, contact tracing, quarantine and isolation measures, social distancing, and the promotion

of hygiene practices. Lockdowns and travel restrictions have been implemented to curb

transmission, often with significant economic and social consequences. Vaccination campaigns,

initially focusing on high-risk populations, became central to global efforts to control the

pandemic.

Lone and Ahmed (2020) notes that Nigeria reported its first case of COVID-19 on

February 27, 2020 when an Italian patient who flew to Nigeria from Italy on 25th of February,

2020 was confirmed to have the virus. The government swiftly activated response mechanisms,

establishing the Presidential Task Force on COVID-19 and implementing a range of measures to

curb the spread of the virus. These measures included lockdowns, travel restrictions, testing and

contact tracing, and public health campaigns emphasizing hygiene practices and social

distancing.

The healthcare system faced unprecedented challenges as the virus spread. The initial focus was

on increasing testing capacity, expanding isolation and treatment centers, and equipping

healthcare professionals with the necessary resources. The government collaborated with

international organizations and sought support from the private sector to enhance its healthcare

infrastructure and response capabilities. According to NCDC, no new COVID-19 cases were

reported in Nigeria from April 22 to April 28, 2023. As of the time of writing, the country has

confirmed 266,675 cases, with 259,953 recoveries and 3,155 deaths across 36 states and the
 20

Federal Capital Territory. Kaduna and Rivers are the two states reporting zero cases. The

national emergency operations centre (EOC) at Level 2 remains active, overseeing coordinated

response efforts.

2.1.4 Misinformation on Social Media During the Ebola outbreak and COVID-19

Pandemic in Nigeria

The use of social media for health communication during the Ebola Outbreak and

COVID-19 Pandemic in Nigeria played a pivotal role in disseminating information, raising

awareness, and fostering public engagement. The unique characteristics of social media,

including its real-time nature and wide-reaching impact, have made it an invaluable tool in crisis

communication and health communication.

The Nigerian government, health agencies, and international organizations utilized social

media to share updates on infection rates, guidelines for prevention, and vaccination information.

Infographics, videos, and live sessions featuring health experts were shared across platforms to

enhance accessibility and understanding. According to Obi Ani et al. (2020), health care agencies

such as the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) updated the masses on the number of

cases they have, those that are positive, fatal or have recovered through these social media

platforms.

While social media has proven instrumental, challenges persist. Misinformation and rumors can

spread rapidly, necessitating vigilant fact-checking and proactive communication from health

authorities and social media users. Social media serves not only as a channel for sharing news

and information but has also functioned as a tool for instigating panic, fear, and confusion among
 21

the public. This occurs despite warnings from the NCDC cautioning against the misuse of social

media through the dissemination of misinformation on health matters.

Prior to the Covid-19 Pandemic, the Ebola Virus in 2014 majorly affected the citizens of

West Africa. Nigerians at the time used social media for the circulation of fake and unreliable

news. The period saw several broadcasts made all over WhatsApp, Facebook, and the likes with

unverified medical information such as bathing with salt water, bitter cola and antibiotics in a bid

to prevent contagious diseases (Adebimpe et al. 2015, p. 3). A similar pattern observed during

the Ebola era is noticeable in the corona virus pandemic, with social media users being urged to

share messages.

Misinformation in the West African context identified common rumors including false

treatments; misinformation about the intentions and motives of healthcare workers treating Ebola

patients and rumors about the Ebola epidemic being a hoax. Such rumors may have impeded the

ability for public health responders to communicate to communities about effective prevention

and control methods. Sell & Trotochaud (2020) affrims that research on Ebola-related

misinformation in west Africa discovered rumors such as the existence of “Ebola zombies”,

misperceptions about the disease transmission, or inaccurate information about experimental

Ebola vaccines was common, potentially leading to fear, uncertainty, and confusion amongst the

public. The term "Ebola zombies" was a sensationalized and fictional concept that combines the

Ebola virus with the idea of zombies for dramatic effect. In reality, Ebola is a serious and often

deadly virus that causes severe illness in humans, but it does not turn people into zombies as

rumored.
 22

The emergence of COVID-19 brought about a surge in the use of social media for

remote health consultations. Owing especially to the fact that the government implemented a

lockdown policy to curb the spread of the Covid-19 virus. Thus, it became an active tool for

engagement and communication for the dissemination of credible information as well as

misinformation on the virus spread and prevention. According to Obi Ani et al. (2020) The

announcement of the first Coronavirus victim was made through various social media platforms

such as Twitter, Facebook, and various websites. Since a good number of Nigerians have access

to these platforms, it was easy to spread any information on the virus whether it was factual or

not.

Below is an excerpt from Obi Ani et al. (2020) on a broadcast message shared via WhatsApp on

the 25th of March 2020 on ways to curtail Covid-19.

“How do you know if you have Corona Virus?

1. Itching in the throat

2. Dry throat

3. Dry Cough

So, if you notice any of these three things, quickly take hot water and drink plus garlic. Note that

it takes like two weeks for this virus to penetrate your whole body, with this initial remedy of

garlic and hot water kills it. Do not keep this information to yourself pass on to all your family

and friends. God bless you".

The excerpt above is just an example of the numerous false information being shared across

social media platforms.

 23

A study by Apuke and Omar (2021) centered on "Fake news and COVID-19: modelling

the predictors of fake news sharing among social media users." Taking Nigeria as the population

of study, they posited that prior evidence has shown that misinformation on health issues are not

new. However, the advent of social media, which permit people to share information without

restriction, has intensified the proliferation of false content in the health ecosystem. From the

study, "Altruism" was found to be the strongest predictor of fake news sharing relating to

COVID-19, an altruistic person enjoys the act of helping others. In the Nigerian context, altruism

has been shown to be a unique characteristic of an average Nigerian, It is more of a cultural trait.

Most Nigerians often have this characteristic of helping one another which is evident when

sharing information, not minding if it is true or not so far as it contains precautionary measures

on certain issues. People may share made-up precautionary measures during health crisis to curb

the spread, in turn, share fake news that could be perilous.

2.2 Empirical Review

Okeke et al. (2021) study explored how undergraduates in Anambra State perceived and

utilized COVID-19 health information from social media, examining the platforms they prefer.

Adopting a Survey research design and utilizing questionnaires, the study aligns with the

Channel Complementarity Theory, asserting that individuals seek information from diverse

sources.

The research utilized a survey involving undergraduate students from two universities in

Anambra state: Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli (a state university), and

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka (a federal university). The choice of undergraduates as

respondents stems from their extensive use of social media for information, a fact supported by
 24

media scholars. The population comprised 36,650 undergraduates from Unizik and 16,700 from

COOU, totaling 53,350 respondents according to the respective university registries, with 370 as

the sample size.

The findings revealed that a significant majority of respondents, accounting for 67.3%,

use social media for such information occasionally. This suggests that most participants don't

rely entirely on social media for COVID-19 information but rather consult it at their convenience

or when the need arises. Providing users with the flexibility to acquire information at their

convenience or to their perceived needs.

The results revealed that a majority, at 63.3%, frequently use information obtained on

social media about COVID-19. Conversely, 27.5% of respondents seldom utilize such

information, while 9.34% do not use it at all. This underscores the trust most respondents place

in the authenticity of social media information, applying it to enhance their health. Also

indicating that the majority, comprising 34.6% of respondents, use WhatsApp for this purpose.

This suggests that while various platforms like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube are

used, WhatsApp stands out as the dominant platform. Affirming that during the peak of the

COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria, social media played a crucial role in disseminating health-

related information. Indicating that Nigerian youths, particularly undergraduates in Anambra

State, heavily rely on social media for both information and entertainment.

Despite concerns about misinformation, the study concluded that social media's

importance in information dissemination cannot be overstated, acknowledging its role in

accessing COVID-19 health messages despite occasional misuse.

 25

Solo-Anaeto et al. (2021) study examined how undergraduates use social media for obtaining

health information. It examined their patterns, the types of health information sought, and the

frequency of seeking such information on social media. The study was conducted at Lead City

University, Ibadan, utilizing a survey design with a 200-student sample size. Students eligible to

participate in the study were those from non-health related programmes.

The findings unlike similar studies suggested that undergraduates primarily use social

media for purposes other than seeking health information. Very few of the students (5%) use

social media to seek health information on a daily basis while majority (32.5%) use social media

for this purpose sometimes. Indicating that while undergraduates do use social media for health

information, it's not a regular practice, they engage when a specific need arises. Students access

health information primarily when it appears on their social media pages or is shared with them

through tags from their social media friends. Preventive healthcare information holds greater

importance for undergraduates compared to other types of health information, such as treatment

for health conditions and locations of healthcare services. The study suggests that students often

encounter health information passively through their social media channels, emphasizing a

preference for preventive healthcare content.

Their main activities involve social interaction, sharing pictures and comments, and

exchanging general information. Citing studies by Johnson et al. (2016) and Zhang (2011) to

support the observation that a minority of students utilize social media for health-related

purposes. Zhang's research, for instance, highlights that only 26% of interviewed students used

social media for health information, suggesting it is not widely embraced as a source for such

information among students. However, the study revealed that when students do require health

information, they turn to social media platforms.

 26

The research however acknowledges that social media is a valuable tool for undergraduates to

access health information, recommending increased proactive engagement in seeking such

information for improved well-being.

Olum and Bongomin (2020) study investigated how medical students (MS) and

healthcare professionals (HCPs) in Uganda utilize social media and various media outlets for

Covid-19 information. Additionally, to evaluate their opinions on the effectiveness of social

media and other media platforms in COVID-19 public health campaigns. Gathering information

on sociodemographic attributes, COVID-19 information sources, social media platform

preferences, and the perceived effectiveness of various media platforms for acquiring knowledge

about COVID-19.

The population encompassed medical students enrolled in programs such as Bachelor

of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, Bachelor of Dental Surgery, Bachelor of Nursing, and

Bachelor of Pharmacy, also including Healthcare professionals at the Makerere University

Teaching Hospitals (MUTH) and 9 of the 10 medical schools in Uganda., were also included.

The study involved individuals aged 18 years or older, and their participation was based

informed consent.

In total, 877 participants (15.5% HCPs, 85.5% MS) were included, yielding an overall

response rate of 21.5%. The majority (63.3%, n=555) were male, with a median age of 24

(range: 18-66) years. Social media served as an information source for 75.8% (665) of the

respondents, with similar usage between MS and HCPs (76.2% vs. 73.5%, p=0.5). Among MS,

frequently used social media platforms included WhatsApp (95.1%), Facebook (54.8%), Twitter

(39.1%), Instagram (24.0%), and Telegram (10.8%).

 27

The findings indicated that HCPs and MS predominantly relied on mass media and social

media for COVID-19 information. Among Medical students, WhatsApp and Facebook emerged

as the most commonly used social media platforms, and both groups favored mass media and

social media as the primary tools for sharing COVID-19-related information.

Onyechi (2023) study explored the connection between how young individuals in South

West Nigeria perceive the credibility of social media and their behavior in seeking health

information. Anchoring on the Source Credibility Theory propounded by Hovland, Janis and

Kelly in 1953. The theory posits that individuals are more subject to persuasion when the source

appears credible. Center to the theory is the idea that the greater the credibility of a source, the

more likely recipients will believe the information, and vice versa.

The research utilized a mixed-method approach, incorporating both a survey and focus

group discussions (FGD). An online cross-sectional survey was chosen to efficiently engage a

broad and diverse youth population across South West Nigeria. The sample included 407 survey

participants and 48 discussants, selected through non-probability convenient, purposive, and

snowball sampling methods. The inclusion criteria are youths who are within the ages of 18 and

35 years and are on social media platforms.

The study findings revealed that participants actively seek health information on social

media, given challenges in accessing traditional health services, young individuals turn to the

internet and social media for confidential and convenient access to an extensive array of

information, including health-related content. Youths seek health information on social media

based on accessibility and convenience. These factors point to the ubiquitous nature of social

media Indicating and a correlation between social media perception and health information
 28

seeking behavior among South West Nigerian youths. Despite having a low perception of social

media credibility, it is ironical that the majority (69%, n=281) of youths rarely verify health

information obtained from social media with other sources like medical professionals, friends, or

family members before relying on it.

The research demonstrated that as youths perceive social media to be credible enough,

their engagement in seeking online health information increases, and conversely. This result

supports the fundamental premise of the source credibility theory, suggesting that the more

credible a source is, the greater the likelihood that receivers will trust the information, and vice

versa. This discovery has implications for the health information-seeking behavior of youths

online and highlights the pressing necessity to address concerns regarding the credibility of

social media.

Recommendations included the development of clear policy frameworks by regulatory

agencies to encourage both governmental and non-governmental health organizations to

effectively utilize social media for healthcare provision, aiming for improved medical coverage

and health outcomes, especially for young individuals.

Musa and Agboola (2020) study examined how health-related information is shared among

health school students in Minna through social media. Anchored on the Uses and Gratification

Theory (UGT), the study employed a survey research, the total population from both health

schools were 2,460 students. The study adopted a survey questionnaire with a 100% response

rate from 344 randomly selected participants. The results found that Facebook (79.9%),

WhatsApp (65.5%), and Twitter (34.3%) were the most commonly used platforms for accessing
 29

health messages. The majority of students (79.8%) benefitted significantly from social media for

disseminating health information, preferring formats like video, audio, and mobile phone texts.

The results indicated that health school students use social media groups/pages daily,

being familiar with multiple platforms and actively participating in relevant groups. The study

found that these students predominantly engage with user-friendly platforms like Facebook,

WhatsApp, Twitter, and Instagram, aligning with global youth trends. Regarding information

dissemination on Twitter, findings suggest that students leverage networks and retweeting. The

majority of students demonstrate a high level of social media tool usage, employing these tools

to search, share, and acquire health information in various formats (audio, video, text).

Also identifying challenges which include poor network coverage, high data

subscription costs, expensive smartphones, and inconsistent power supply affecting students'

access to social media. Recommending educators and healthcare instructors to utilize social

media tools for effective health information dissemination.

Kehinde et al. (2022) study focused on the examination of how social media users in Nigeria

engage with Covid-19 information. Utilizing Google Forms to administer an electronic

questionnaire, data was collected from a total of 348 participants, reflecting the diverse nature of

the study population.

The results of the investigation highlighted a keen interest among Nigerian social media

users in obtaining comprehensive knowledge about Covid-19. Notably, their primary sources for

Covid-19 information were identified as the social media platforms of the Nigerian Centre for

Disease Control (NCDC) and the World Health Organisation (WHO). The study further revealed

that WhatsApp emerged as the predominant channel for sharing Covid-19 information within
 30

this social media user community in Nigeria. Despite the widespread availability of information,

the data indicated overall satisfaction among participants regarding the quality of Covid-19

information accessible to them.

However, a significant challenge emerged in the form of fake news, misinformation, and

an overwhelming volume of Covid-19-related information on social media, posing hurdles for

users seeking accurate and reliable information.

Waititu (2021) study aimed to evaluate the extent of social media usage among students

in tertiary institutions, its impact on them, and their perception of social media as a reliable

source of COVID-19 information. A survey consisting of an online questionnaire was

administered to 250 students, aged between 18 and 35 years, and the gathered data underwent

verification and analysis using SPSS software.

The study found strong agreement (90.9%) that most COVID-19 information is acquired

from social media, contributing significantly to awareness. Additionally, a majority (72.4%)

acknowledged the use of social media platforms for sharing COVID-19 information. A

noteworthy revelation was the substantial influence of social media on users, with 72.9%

strongly agreeing that they are influenced by the platforms they subscribe to. This underscores

the platforms' role in disseminating crucial COVID-19 information based on users' preferences.

In terms of specific platforms, the results indicated prevalent usage of Facebook, Twitter,

WhatsApp, and Instagram, with WhatsApp being the most utilized.

The findings affirms the significant role of social media, particularly WhatsApp, in

disseminating COVID-19 information among tertiary institution students. Despite its substantial
 31

influence, a notable portion of students does not consider social media a trustworthy or accurate

source of pandemic-related information.

The various studies reviewed indcate a high reliance on social media among

undergraduates for accessing health messages, with an exception of Solo-Anaeto et al. (2021)

study. The studies confirm the hypothesis that social media users have a tendency to actively

search for health messages during times of emerging health issues more than they would during

regular circumstances. Identifying Whatsapp as the predominant social media platform for

accessing health messages. Also acknowledging a high rate of misformation and low credibility

of health messages shared across social media platforms.

Unlike other similar works, this research distinguishes itself by examining the impact of

health messages from social media during the Ebola virus outbreak on users' subsequent reliance

on social media during the COVID-19 outbreak. Further exploring how these two instances have

shaped continued dependence on social media for health-related messages. In an effort to

discover how misinformation from social media during the Eblola virus and Covid-19 outbreak

has affected social media users' reliance on the platforms for health messages.

In other words, this study investigates the patterns and trends in the dependence on

social media for health messages among UNN undergraduates in 2023, comparing their

experiences during the Ebola outbreak of 2014 and the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020.

Identifying primary social media platforms and information sources utilized by UNN

undergraduates for health information during these two health crises. Futhermore examining the

influence of social media reliance on the health-related behaviors, attitudes, and perceptions of
 32

UNN undergraduates during the Ebola and COVID-19 outbreaks, so as to provide insights into

the impact of social media on public health communication.

Also, this research aims to address the scarcity of literature regarding the social media

experience of Nigerian youths and undergraduates during the Ebola virus outbreak, as compared

to the abundance of works on the use social media for health information on Covid-19. The goal

is to bridge this knowledge gap and offer accurate insights into the reliance on social media for

health information during the Ebola outbreak, replacing assumptions with factual answers.

2.4 Theoretical Review

1. Uses and Gratification Theory

The Uses and Gratification Theory was developed by Elihu Katz and Jay Blumler based

on their work "The uses of mass communication: Current perspectives on gratifications research"

in 1974. Originating from the research of Harold Laswell in the 1940s. According to Lim and

Ting (2012), the theory posits that individuals actively select media content based on their needs,

interests, and gratifications. It suggests that people are not passive consumers but make

conscious choices regarding media consumption to fulfill specific psychological or social needs.

It is a communication theory that explores why people actively seek out and use media. Unlike

other communication theories that focus on the effects of media on individuals, this theory

emphasizes the proactive role of the audience in choosing the kind of medium and medium

content to consume. Weiyan (2015) notes that at the core of the theory is the aim to understand

how, why, and with what purpose people use the media in their everyday lives.

The Uses and Gratification theory asserts that media users actively and purposefully

engage with media, selecting sources that best meet their needs from among various alternatives.
 33

It underscores individuals' awareness of their media consumption choices and the anticipated

gratifications. Additionally, the theory suggests that people opt for specific media types with the

expectation of obtaining particular gratifications. It centers on the media consumer rather than

the media content or messages. In essence, the theory views individuals as conscious and active

participants in their media choices, driven by an understanding of the underlying motivations.

Relevance of the Theory to the Study

Applied to this study, the theory suggests that UNN undergraduates actively engage with

social media for health messages to satisfy specific needs and desires. Understanding these

motivations is paramount for unraveling the complexities of their reliance on social media during

health crises. Considering the availability of alternative media sources that offer health

information, the decision to depend on social media for health information over traditional media

hinges on the gratification it provides to the information seeker.

The gratifications people derive from their media exposure will largely determine their

future exposure patterns. Fauzi and Kadir (2015) acknowledge that one of the most frequent

information sought on the Internet by youths is health and health related issues. Therefore, the

level of gratification derived from social media health messages during health crises like the

Ebola and Covid-19 outbreaks, serves as a determinant of further reliance on social media for

health messages in future health crises.

By applying this theory, this research can uncover patterns in the selection and

consumption of health messages. Enabling the exploration of health information needs of UNN

undergraduates and why they choose a meduim over another in satisfying these needs. The

theory encompasses the active role played by UNN undergraduates in shaping their media
 34

consumption habits during health crises. Understanding their underlying motivations and

gratifications can allow for predictions on subsequent reliance on social media for health

messages.

2. The Media Dependency Theory

Media Dependency Theory (MDT) provides a comprehensive framework for

understanding the intricate relationship between individuals and mass media in contemporary

society. Developed in 1976 by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur based on their work "A

Dependency Model of Mass-Media Effects." MDT posits that individuals and societies become

increasingly dependent on mass media for information, interpretation, and understanding,

particularly in complex and evolving environments.

At its core, MDT emphasizes the concept of dependency, suggesting that media play a

central role in shaping individuals' perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. The theory

acknowledges the diverse functions of mass media, including information dissemination,

socialization, entertainment, and surveillance. In an age marked by the proliferation of media

channels and the rise of digital technologies, MDT remains relevant in unraveling the dynamics

of media influence and dependency in contemporary society.

MDT also emphasizes the active role of individuals in selecting and engaging with

media content based on their needs and gratifications. In an era of media abundance, individuals

exhibit varying degrees of media dependency, seeking out sources that align with their interests,

beliefs, and values. This selective exposure to media content reinforces individuals' existing

attitudes and preferences. Yuying (2022) affirms that Media dependence theory (MDT) assumes

that people will rely more on mass media for information under certain conditions (such as the
 35

availability of alternative sources of information at any time). This dependence on the media has

been shown to predict changes in people's attitudes and behavior.

Furthermore, MDT acknowledges the influence of media on individuals' cognitive,

affective, and behavioral responses. Mass media messages can shape individuals' perceptions of

reality, attitudes toward social issues, and behavioral intentions. Whether through agenda-setting,

framing, or cultivation effects, media exert a profound influence on how individuals interpret and

respond to the world around them.

Relevance of the Theory to the Study

In context to this study, UNN undergraduates may exhibit a heightened dependency on

social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and WhatsApp for accessing health-related

information during public health crises due to the convenience, accessibility, and ubiquity of

these platforms. According to Mehrad and Yousefi (2018), Ball Rokeach and DeFleur believed

that in today’s world, especially in big cities and industrial societies, people need much

information to meet their needs. In such circumstance, traditional communications can no longer

fulfill the increasing needs of audiences. Today, various communication media have been

appeared and developed, and people turn to such media to meet their needs and become

dependent to them regarding how much and how they use it.

Social media platforms facilitate social influence and interactivity among users, shaping

their perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. During public health crises, UNN undergraduates may

be influenced by peer recommendations, expert opinions, and user-generated content on social

media platforms, leading to changes in health-related attitudes and behaviors. MDT emphasizes

individuals' active role in selecting and engaging with media content based on their informational
 36

needs and gratifications. UNN undergraduates may engage in extensive information-seeking

behavior on social media platforms, driven by the desire for real-time updates, diverse

perspectives, and user-generated content related to health messages during the Ebola outbreak

and COVID-19 pandemic.

By Unraveling the dynamics between individuals and media platforms, MDT offers

valuable insights into the complexities of media dependency in the context of health

communication, informing future research, interventions, and policy initiatives aimed at

leveraging social media for effective health messaging and promotion among undergraduate

populations.
 37

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter will cover the population of the study, the data instrument, the validation of

the research instrument, the population of the study, the research design, sample size, sampling

techniques, the reliability of the research instrument, the method of analysis, and the data

presentation. It will establish a set of guidelines for this study, detailing the precise sample

approaches to be utilized, the procedures that must be followed, and other activities that should

be taken during the methodological design stage.

3.2 Research Design

Creswell (2008) defined research design as a framework for collecting and utilizing sets

of data that aims to produce logical and appropriate findings with great accuracy (p. 50). The

study adopted survey research method as the research design. According to Ohaja (2003) Survey

research design is a quantitative method of conducting research and it involves sampling a large

number of respondents. It allows for generalizations since variables being considered in the

research can be measured.

Survey research design is a popular method used to collect data from a representative

sample of individuals and groups. It is a widely used method in social science research and is

employed to gather information about people's opinions, attitudes, behaviors, and characteristics.

Asemah et al. (2012) noted that a survey is an empirical study that uses questionnaires or

interviews to discover descriptive characteristics of a phenomenon (p. 149). Thus It involves

 38

systematically gathering information by asking questions to respondents and analyzing their

responses. The primary aim of using this research design is to obtain accurate and reliable

information about a specific population or subset of it.

3.3 Population of the Study

The population of study for this research includes all students in the University of

Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria (UNN). For the purpose of clarity, the University of Nigeria, Nsukka is

a federal university in Enugu State which is why it was chosen for this study. UNN was chosen

since the study aims to analyze the reliance on social media for Health messages among UNN

undergraduates in 2023 and the population was also chosen to avoid difficulty in obtaining the

necessary information.

The population of this study is the undergraduate students of University of Nigeria,

Nsukka Campus which has a total number of 35,130 undergraduates according to the school's

Academic planning unit. Below is the representation of UNN population,

Table 1: Population of undergraduate students in the selected university

University No. of students Type Session

University of Nigeria, 35,130 Federal 2022/2023

Nsukka

Source: Academic planning unit, UNN 2023

 39

Table 2: Details of the selected Population of UNN Undergraduate Students for both male

and female (2022/2023)

S/N Faculty Total

1 Agriculture 3027

2 Arts 5233

3 Biological Sciences 5701

4 Education 4189

5 Engineering 3157

6 Pharmaceutical 1341

7 Social Sciences 5191

8 Veterinary Medicine 3828

9 Physical Sciences 2736

10 Vocational and Technical education 727

Total 35,130

Source: Academic Planning Unit, UNN, 2023.

3.4 Sample Size

Sample size refers to the number of participants in a study. It is determined using

statistical calculations and practical considerations. A representative sample is important to make

 40

accurate conclusions about a larger population while balancing accuracy and feasibility. It was

crucial to select a suitable and efficient sample size because it would be challenging to cover the

entire population.

A sample size is a representative of the whole population. Ogili (2005) defines sample as

the actual number of or part of study population that is objectively selected for the purpose.

Therefore, to arrive at a population that is representative of the population of this study, the

Australian calculator was used.

Sites for Australian calculator

 41

[Link]

3.5 Sampling Technique

The study used a multi-stage sampling technique which includes, purposive, simple random

and accidental sampling technique. A multi-staged sampling techniques is defined as a method

that divides the population into groups for conducting research. During the sampling method,

significant clusters of the selected people are split into sub-groups at various stages to make it

simpler for primary data collection

Therefore, purposive sampling technique was used to purposively select all the faculties

of the University of Nigeria Nsukka to achieve a broader range for the study while simple

random sampling was used to select the departments for the study. To achieve this, the

researcher used a balloting system which three boxes containing the faculties were available to

the researcher. The departments in each faculty were written in separate pieces of paper and

allocated particular numbers in an orderly manner: 1,2,3,4,5,6 and so on depending on the

faculties. These pieces of paper were scrunched and mixed properly before picking the selected

departments in each faculty and below is the representation of the selected department for this

study.
 42

Table 3: Selected department for the study

S/N Faculties Selected departments Total

Departments

1 Arts Mass Communication, English 2

and literary studies

2 Social sciences Philosophy, Economics 2

3 Agriculture Nutrition and Dietetics, Crop 2

science

4 Biological Sciences Biochemistry, Microbiology 2

5 Physical Sciences Computer Sciences, Pure and 2

Industrial Chemistry

6 Education English Education, Educational 2

foundations

7 Engineering Civil Engineering, Electrical 2

engineering

8 Pharmaceutical Pharmaceutical, Doctor of 2

Pharmacy

9 Veterinary Medicine Veterinary Medicine, Animal 2

Health and Production

10 Vocational and Technical Home Economics, Business 2

Education (VTE) Education

Total Departments 20

The third stage used is the Accidental Sampling Technique, Accidental sampling is a

method of sampling without probability where people or cases are chosen depending on how

easily they may be accessed by the researcher. People are picked for their accessibility or

convenience.
 43

The Bowley’s proportional calculation of 1926 was used subsequently to allocate copies

of the questionnaire to each department in the faculties.

The formula is nh =

Where nh = sample size

N= population size (it is a total sum of the population)

N= total population size and

n= total sample size

The calculation is represented below for the various faculties in the university

Faculty of Arts

Nh =

Nh =

= 0.1490 367

nh = 55 (copies of questionnaire to be distributed)

Faculty of Agriculture

Nh =

Nh =
 44

= 0.0862 367

nh = 32 (copies of questionnaire to be distributed)

Faculty of Biological Sciences

Nh =

Nh =

= 0.1623 367

nh = 60 (copies of questionnaire to be distributed)

Faculty of Education

Nh =

Nh =

= 0.1192 367

nh = 44 (copies of questionnaire to be distributed)

Faculty of Engineering

Nh =

Nh =
 45

= 0.0899 367

nh = 33 (copies of questionnaire to be distributed)

Faculty of Pharmaceutical

Nh =

Nh =

= 0.0382 367

nh = 14 (copies of questionnaire to be distributed)

Faculty of Social Sciences

Nh =

Nh =

= 0.1478 367

nh = 53 (copies of questionnaire to be distributed)

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine

Nh =

Nh =
 46

= 0.1090 367

nh = 39 (copies of questionnaire to be distributed)

Faculty of Physical Sciences

Nh =

Nh =

= 0.0779 367

nh = 29 (copies of questionnaire to be distributed)

Faculty of Vocational and Technical Education

Nh =

Nh =

= 0.0207 367

nh = 8 (copies of questionnaire to be distributed)

Table 4: Representation Of Departments and Copies Of Questionnaire Allotted

S/N Selected Faculties Copies Of Questionnaires to Be Distributed

1) Faculty of Agriculture 32

2) Faculty of Arts 55
 47

3) Faculty of Biological Sciences 60

4) Faculty of Education 44

5) Faculty of Engineering 33

6) Faculty of Pharmaceutical 14

7) Faculty of Social Sciences 53

8) Faculty of Veterinary Medicine 39

9) Faculty of Physical Sciences 29

10) Faculty of Vocational and Technical 8

Education

Total 367

3.6 Instrument of Data Collection

The questionnaire will be the tool utilized to collect data for this study. Close-ended

questions are structured survey questions that provide predefined response options for

participants to choose from, they will be used in the questionnaire. The structured nature of

close-ended questions simplifies data analysis by allowing for efficient coding, tabulation, and

statistical calculations. This makes it easier to identify patterns, trends, and relationships among

variables.

3.7 Validity of Research Instrument

 48

The validity of a research instrument refers to the extent to which it accurately measures

what it is intended to measure. It is an important aspect of research methodology as it ensures

that the data collected is reliable and meaningful. The researcher adopted the face validity

method. Face validity refers to the superficial appearance or "face value" of the research

instrument. It involves evaluating whether the items or questions appear to be relevant and

appropriate for measuring the intended construct. To ensure face validity, the researcher asked

his supervisor to carefully review it to make sure that each item was measuring what it was

supposed to measure. Therefore, his supervisor carefully examined the measurement and

determined that it was valid.

3.7 Reliability of Research Instrument

In checking the reliability of the study instrument, the research conducted a mini survey

of the whole sampled population. The researcher distributed 30 copies of the questionnaire to a

small group, after which the data collected were analysed in line with the research questions and

some adjustments were made to ensure better results.

3.8 Method of Data Analysis

Quantitative and qualitative analysis were both used in this study's data analysis.

Utilizing statistics and numerical tables in the quantitative component to find answers to the

study questions or any other queries the researcher posed. The researcher was able to better

interpret the research question through qualitative analysis.

Simple tables, frequencies, percentages and charts were used by the researcher to present

the findings. To ensure accuracy and clarity, the data were analyzed and interpreted in a certain
 49

order. The analysis and interpretation of the research questions came after the demographic

information of the respondents.

 50

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

This chapter of the study is mainly concerned with the presentation, analysis,

interpretation and discussion of research findings. Thus, this chapter is designed in such a

manner that presentation, analysis and the interpretation process is guided by the research

questions. Presentation would be made using simple frequency, percentage and tables. The

findings were presented with utmost accuracy and objectivity. The raw data were translated into

percentage and frequency to enable the researchers draw reasonable conclusion based on the

information gathered.

4.1 Description of the Sample

To conduct this study, a total of 367 copies of questionnaire were distributed. Out of the

total number of the copies of questionnaire distributed, 367 were returned representing 100%, the

table below shows how they were represented

Table 1

Response Rate
Items Frequency Percentage (%)

No. Distributed 367 100%

No. Returned 367 100%

Source: field survey, 2024

 51

4.2 Analysis of demographic data of respondents

This section deals with the personal data of respondents on the basis of Gender, Age,

Educational level and Faculty. The response of the respondents is as follows:

Table 2
Gender distribution of respondents
Gender Frequency Percentage (%)

Male 219 59.7%

Female 148 40.3%

Total 367 100%

The above table shows the sex distribution of the population. From the table above, 219

respondents representing (59.7%) are male as 148 respondents representing (40.3%) who are

female.

Table 3
Age distribution of the respondents
Age Frequency Percentage (%)
18-20 years 49 13.4%
21-25 years 261 71.1%
26-30 years 40 10.9%
Above 30 years 17 4.6%

Total 367 100%

As seen above, 49 respondents representing (13.4%) are between 18-20 years, 261

(71.1%) respondents fall between the age of 21-25 years, 40 respondents representing (10.9%)

fall between the age of 26-30 and 17 respondents representing (4.6%) are above 30 years.
 52

Table 4
Educational level of Respondents
Educational level Frequency Percentage (%)

100 29 7.9%
200 35 9.5%
300 43 11.7%
400 218 59.4%
500 42 11.4%

Total 367 100%

From the above table, 400 level students made up of the most respondents since 218

respondents representing (59.4%) of the respondents are in 400 Level, then 100 Level students

are 29 (7.9%), 200 Level students are 35 (9.5%) while 300 Level students are 43 (11.7%) and

500 Level students are 42 (11.4%) of the population.

Table 5

Faculty of Respondents

Faculty Frequency Percentage (%)

Faculty Of Agriculture 8 1.8%
Faculty Of Arts 200 51.6%
Faculty Of Biological 25 6.8%
Sciences
Faculty Of Education 11 3.0%
Faculty Of Engineering 24 6.5%
Faculty Of Pharmaceutical 20 5.4%
Faculty Of Physical Sciences 10 2.7%
Faculty Of Veterinary 5 3.0%
Medicine
Faculty Of Vocational and 5 3.0%
Technical Education (VTE)
Faculty Of Social sciences 59 16.1%
Total 367 100%
 53

As seen above, 200 respondents representing (51.6%) are in the Faculty Of Arts while 59

respondents representing (16.1%) are in Faculty Of Social sciences, 8 respondents representing

(1.8%) are in the Faculty Of Agriculture, 25 respondents representing (6.8%) are in the Faculty

Of Biological Sciences, 10 respondents representing (2.7%) are in the Faculty Of Physical

Sciences, 11 respondents representing (3.0%) are in the Faculty Of Education, 24 respondents

representing (6.5%) are in the Faculty Of Engineering, 20 respondents representing (5.4%) are in

the Faculty Of Pharmaceutical, 5 respondents representing (3.0%) are in the Faculty Of

Veterinary Medicine and 5 respondents representing (3.0%) are in the Faculty Of Vocational and

Technical Education (VTE) [ ]

4.3 Analysis of Psychographic Data Respondents

The following questions below from the questionnaire were used to address the research

questions accordingly. The psychographic data of the respondents were therefore represented

below using simple tables, frequencies and percentage.

SECTION B: (PSYCHOGRAPHIC DATA)

Question one: I rely heavily on social media for health messages in 2023?
 54

Table 5

Respondents responses

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 201 54.8

Disagree 84 22.9
Strongly agree 41 11.2
Strongly disagree 41 11.2

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 84 respondents representing (54.8%) disagree, 41 respondents

(11.2%) strongly disagree, 201 respondents representing (54.8%) agreed while 41 respondents

representing (11.2%) strongly agree that they rely heavily on social media for health messages in

2023. Therefore, majority of respondents agree that they rely heavily on social media for health

messages in 2023.

Question Two: Social media is a valuable source of health information for me during the Ebola

outbreak of 2014

Table 6:
Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 177 48.2

Disagree 81 22.1
Strongly Agree 64 17.4
Strongly Disagree 45 12.3

Total 367 100.0

 55

From the above table, 81 respondents representing (22.1%) disagree, 45 respondents (12.3%)

strongly disagree, 177 respondents representing (48.2%) agreed while 64 respondents

representing (17.4%) strongly agree that social media is a valuable source of health information

for them during the Ebola outbreak of 2014. Therefore, majority of respondents agree that social

media is a valuable source of health information for them during the Ebola outbreak of 2014.

Question Three: In comparison to the Ebola outbreak in 2014, I find myself relying more on

social media for health messages during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

Table 7:
Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 176 48.0

Disagree 71 19.3
Strongly agree 90 24.5
Strongly disagree 30 8.2

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 71 respondents representing (19.3%) disagree, 30 respondents

(8.2%) strongly disagree, 176 respondents representing (48.0%) agreed while 90 respondents

representing (24.5%) strongly agree that in comparison to the Ebola outbreak in 2014, they rely

more on social media for health messages during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Therefore,

majority of respondents agree that they rely more on social media for health messages during the

COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 in comparison to the Ebola outbreak in 2014.

Question Four: I am confident in the accuracy of health information obtained through social

media in 2023
 56

Table 8:
Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 190 51.8

Disagree 140 38.1
Strongly agree 18 4.9
Strongly disagree 17 4.6

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 140 respondents representing (38.1%) disagree, 17 respondents

(4.6%) strongly disagree, 196 respondents representing (51.8%) agreed while 18 respondents

representing (4.9%) strongly agree that they are confident in the accuracy of health information

obtained through social media in 2023. Therefore, majority of respondents agree that that they

are confident in the accuracy of health information obtained through social media in 2023.

Question Five: Social media has played a more significant role in disseminating health

information during the Ebola outbreak or the COVID-19 pandemic

Table 9

Respondents responses

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 219 59.7

Disagree 38 10.4
Strongly agree 79 21.5
Strongly disagree 31 8.4

Total 367 100.0

 57

From the above table, 38 respondents representing (10.4%) disagree, 31 respondents

(8.4%) strongly disagree, 219 respondents representing (59.7%) agreed while 79 respondents

representing (21.5%) strongly agree that social media has played a more significant role in

disseminating health information during the Ebola outbreak or the COVID-19 pandemic.

Therefore, majority of respondents agree that that social media has played a more significant role

in disseminating health information during the Ebola outbreak or the COVID-19 pandemic.

Question Six: Which specific social media platform did you primarily use for accessing health

messages during the Ebola outbreak and the COVID-19 pandemic? Facebook [], WhatsApp [],

Instagram [], Twitter [], YouTube []

Table 10
Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Facebook 96 26.17
WhatsApp 54 14.71
Instagram 72 19.60
Twitter 86 23.43
YouTube 59 16.08

Total 367 100.0

From the table, 96 respondents, representing (26.17%) rely on Facebook for health messages.

54 respondents, representing (14.71%) rely on WhatsApp for health messages. 72 respondents

(19.60%), rely on Instagram for health messages. 86 respondents (23.43%) rely on Twitter for

health messages, whereas 59 respondents (16.08%) rely on YouTube for health information. This

indicates that Facebook is the most used social media platform by UNN undergraduates for

accessing health messages, followed by Twitter and Instagram respectively.

 58

Question Seven: The choice of social media platforms for health information during the Ebola

outbreak of 2014 differed from those during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

Table 11

Respondents responses

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 175 47.7

Disagree 143 39.0
Strongly Agree 45 12.3
Strongly disagree 4 1.1

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 143 respondents representing (39.0%) disagree, 4 respondents

(1.1%) strongly disagree, 175 respondents representing (47.7%) agreed while 45 respondents

representing (12.3%) strongly agree that the choice of social media platforms for health

information during the Ebola outbreak of 2014 differed from those during the COVID-19

pandemic in 2020. Therefore, majority of respondents agree that the choice of social media

platforms for health information during the Ebola outbreak of 2014 differed from those during

the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.

Question Eight: I frequently rely on official health organization websites for health information

on social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014

 59

Table 12
Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 170 46.3

Disagree 108 29.4
Strongly agree 64 17.4
Strongly disagree 25 6.8

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 108 respondents representing (29.4%) disagree, 25 respondents

(6.8%) strongly disagree, 170 respondents representing (46.3%) agreed while 64 respondents

representing (17.4%) strongly agree that they frequently rely on official health organization

websites for health information on social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014. Therefore,

majority of respondents agree that they frequently rely on official health organization websites

for health information on social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014.

Question Nine: The utilization of video content for health information on social media has

increased during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

Table 13
Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 262 71.4

Disagree 22 6.0
Strongly agree 69 18.8
Strongly disagree 14 3.8

Total 367 100.0

 60

From the above table, 22 respondents representing (6.0%) disagree, 14 respondents

(3.8%) strongly disagree, 262 respondents representing (71.4%) agreed while 69 respondents

representing (18.8%) strongly agree that the utilization of video content for health information on

social media has increased during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Therefore, majority of

respondents agree that the utilization of video content for health information on social media has

increased during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.

Question Ten: The role of online forums or discussion groups on social media platforms is vital

for sharing health information during both the Ebola outbreak and the COVID-19 pandemic

Table 14

Respondents responses

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 248 67.6

Disagree 39 10.6
Strongly agree 55 15.0
Strongly disagree 24 6.5

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 39 respondents representing (10.6%) disagree, 24 respondents

(6.5%) strongly disagree, 248 respondents representing (67.6%) agreed while 55 respondents

representing (15.0%) strongly agree that the role of online forums or discussion groups on social

media platforms is vital for sharing health information during both the Ebola outbreak and the

COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, majority of respondents agree that the role of online forums or

discussion groups on social media platforms is vital for sharing health information during both

the Ebola outbreak and the COVID-19 pandemic.

 61

Question Eleven: Health information obtained through social media during the Ebola outbreak

of 2014 was credible and trustworthy

Table 15

Respondents responses

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 164 44.7

Disagree 145 39.5
Strongly agree 34 11.7
Strongly disagree 12 3.3

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 145 respondents representing (39.5%) disagree, 12 respondents

(3.3%) strongly disagree, 164 respondents representing (44.7%) agreed while 34 respondents

representing (11.7%) strongly agree that health information obtained through social media during

the Ebola outbreak of 2014 was credible and trustworthy. Therefore, majority of respondents

agree that health information obtained through social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014

was credible and trustworthy.

Question Twelve: The credibility of health information on social media has improved during the

COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

 62

Table 16
Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 199 54.2

Disagree 86 23.4
Strongly agree 66 18.0
Strongly disagree 15 4.1

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 86 respondents representing (23.4%) disagree, 15 respondents

(4.1%) strongly disagree, 199 respondents representing (54.2%) agreed while 66 respondents

representing (18.0%) strongly agree that the credibility of health information on social media has

improved during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Therefore, majority of respondents agree that

the credibility of health information on social media has improved during the COVID-19

pandemic in 2020.

Question Thirteen: There is an accuracy in the health information shared by official health

organizations on social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014

Table 17
Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 254 69.2

Disagree 50 13.6
Strongly agree 48 13.1
Strongly disagree 14 3.8

Total 367 100.0

 63

From the above table, 50 respondents representing (13.1%) disagree, 14 respondents

(3.8%) strongly disagree, 254 respondents representing (69.2%) agreed while 48 respondents

representing (13.1%) strongly agree that there is an accuracy in the health information shared by

official health organizations on social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014. Therefore,

majority of respondents agree that there is an accuracy in the health information shared by

official health organizations on social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014.

Question Fourteen: Social media platforms have implemented measures to ensure the accuracy

of health information during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

Table 18

Respondents responses

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 268 73.0

Disagree 47 12.8
Strongly agree 43 11.7
Strongly disagree 8 2.2

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 47 respondents representing (12.8%) disagree, 8 respondents

(2.2%) strongly disagree, 268 respondents representing (73.0%) agreed while 43 respondents

representing (11.7%) strongly agree that social media platforms have implemented measures to

ensure the accuracy of health information during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Therefore,

majority of respondents agree that social media platforms have implemented measures to ensure

the accuracy of health information during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.

 64

Question Fifteen: There is a strong reliability in the health information shared from non-

governmental organizations (NGOs) on social media during both health crises

Table 19

Respondents responses

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 189 51.5

Disagree 117 31.9
Strongly agree 55 15.0
Strongly disagree 4 1.1

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 117 respondents representing (31.9%) disagree, 4 respondents

(1.1%) strongly disagree, 189 respondents representing (51.5%) agreed while 55 respondents

representing (15.0%) strongly agree that there is a strong reliability in the health information

shared from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) on social media during both health crises.

Therefore, majority of respondents agree that there is a strong reliability in the health

information shared from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) on social media during both

health crises.

Question Sixteen: I have occassionally encountered accurate and reliable health-related content

on social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014 and COVID-19 pandemic of 2020
 65

Table 20

Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 262 71.4

Disagree 56 15.3
Strongly agree 42 11.4
Strongly disagree 7 1.9

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 56 respondents representing (15.3%) disagree, 7 respondents

(1.9%) strongly disagree, 262 respondents representing (71.4%) agreed while 42 respondents

representing (11.4%) strongly agree that they have occassionally encountered accurate and

reliable health-related content on social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014. Therefore,

majority of respondents agree that they have occassionally encountered accurate and reliable

health-related content on social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014.

Question Seventeen: There is an increase in misinformation or rumors related to health on

social media during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 compared to the Ebola outbreak

Table 21
Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 230 62.7

Disagree 70 19.1
Strongly Agree 57 15.5
Strongly Disagree 10 2.7

Total 367 100.0

 66

From the above table, 70 respondents representing (19.1%) disagree, 10 respondents

(2.7%) strongly disagree, 230 respondents representing (62.7%) agreed while 57 respondents

representing (15.5%) strongly agree that there is an increase in misinformation or rumors related

to health on social media during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 compared to the Ebola

outbreak. Therefore, majority of respondents agree that there is an increase in misinformation or

rumors related to health on social media during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 compared to

the Ebola outbreak.

Question Eighteen: I fact checked health messages received through social media during the

Ebola outbreak and COVID-19 pandemic before believing and sharing them

Table 22

Respondents responses

Respondents Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 60 29.1
Disagree 200 52.7
Strongly Agree 67 13.5
Strongly Disagree 40 4.7

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 200 respondents representing (52.7%) disagree, 40 respondents (4.7%)

strongly disagree, 60 respondents representing (29.1%) agreed while 67 respondents representing

(13.5%) strongly agree that fact check health messages received through social media before

during the Ebola outbreak and COVID-19 pandemic before believing and sharing them. This

indicates that a majority of the present UNN undergraduates did not engage in fact checking for

credibility of health messages received through social media during both health crises
 67

Question Nineteen: There is a notable difference in the types of health-related misinformation

encountered on social media during the Ebola outbreak compared to the COVID-19 pandemic

Table 2:

Respondents responses

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 260 71.5

Disagree 35 9.5
Strongly Agree 62 16.9
Strongly Disagree 8 1.5

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 35 respondents representing (9.5%) disagree, 8 respondents (1.5%)

strongly disagree, 260 respondents representing (71.5%) agreed while 62 respondents

representing (16.9%) strongly agree that there is a notable difference in the types of health-

related misinformation encountered on social media during the Ebola outbreak compared to the

COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, majority of respondents agree that there is a notable difference

in the types of health-related misinformation encountered on social media during the Ebola

outbreak compared to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Question Twenty: I have experienced the sharing of health-related rumors within my social

network on social media during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

 68

Table 24

Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 248 67.6

Disagree 53 14.4
Strongly Agree 52 14.2
Strongly Disagree 10 2.7

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 53 respondents representing (14.4%) disagree, 10 respondents

(2.7%) strongly disagree, 248 respondents representing (67.6%) agreed while 52 respondents

representing (14.2%) strongly agree that they have experienced the sharing of health-related

rumors within their social network on social media during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.

Therefore, majority of respondents agree that they have experienced the sharing of health-related

rumors within their social network on social media during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.

Question Twenty-One: My health-related behaviors were influenced by information obtained

through social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014

Table 25
Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 214 58.3

Disagree 92 25.1
Strongly Agree 42 11.5
Strongly Disagree 19 5.2

Total 367 100.0

 69

From the above table, 92 respondents representing (25.1%) disagree, 19 respondents

(5.2%) strongly disagree, 214 respondents representing (58.3%) agreed while 42 respondents

representing (11.5%) strongly agree that their health-related behaviors were influenced by

information obtained through social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014. Therefore,

majority of respondents agree that their health-related behaviors were influenced by information

obtained through social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014

Question Twenty-Two: My attitudes towards health practices were shaped by social media

during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

Table 26

Respondents responses

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 221 60.2

Disagree 98 26.7
Strongly Agree 33 10.6
Strongly Disagree 19 15.8

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 98 respondents representing (26.7%) disagree, 19 respondents

(15.8%) strongly disagree, 221 respondents representing (60.2%) agreed while 33 respondents

representing (10.6%) strongly agree that their attitudes towards health practices were shaped by

social media during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Therefore, majority of respondents agree

that their attitudes towards health practices were shaped by social media during the COVID-19

pandemic in 2020.
 70

Question Twenty-Three: The increased reliance on social media for health information during

the COVID-19 pandemic has led to changes in my health-related behaviors compared to the

Ebola outbreak

Table 27

Respondents responses

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 258 70.3

Disagree 58 15.8
Strongly Agree 35 16.6
Strongly disagree 16 4.4

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 58 respondents representing (15.8%) disagree, 16 respondents

(4.4%) strongly disagree, 258 respondents representing (70.3%) agreed while 35 respondents

representing (16.6%) strongly agree that the increased reliance on social media for health

information during the COVID-19 pandemic has led to changes in my health-related behaviors

compared to the Ebola outbreak. Therefore, majority of respondents agree that the increased

reliance on social media for health information during the COVID-19 pandemic has led to

changes in my health-related behaviors compared to the Ebola outbreak.

Question Twenty-Four: Social media played a significant role in influencing public attitudes

towards vaccination during the Ebola outbreak

 71

Table 28
Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 260 70.8

Disagree 28 7.6
Strongly Agree 68 18.5
Strongly Disagree 10 19.0

Total 367 100.0

From the above table, 28 respondents representing (7.6%) disagree, 10 respondents

(19.0%) strongly disagree, 260 respondents representing (70.8%) agreed while 68 respondents

representing (18.5%) strongly agree that social media played a significant role in influencing

public attitudes towards vaccination during the Ebola outbreak. Therefore, majority of

respondents agree that social media played a significant role in influencing public attitudes

towards vaccination during the Ebola outbreak.

Question Twenty-Five: Social media has contributed to the dissemination of accurate health

information and promotion of healthy behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

Table 29
Respondents responses
Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Agree 226 61.5

Disagree 72 19.6
Strongly Agree 51 13.9
Strongly Disagree 18 4.9

Total 367 100.0

 72

From the above table, 72 respondents representing (19.6%) disagree, 18 respondents

(4.9%) strongly disagree, 226 respondents representing (61.5%) agreed while 51 respondents

representing (13.9%) strongly agree that social media has contributed to the dissemination of

accurate health information and promotion of healthy behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic

in 2020. Therefore, majority of respondents agree that social media has contributed to the

dissemination of accurate health information and promotion of healthy behaviors during the

COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.

4.4 Discussion of Findings

The data gathered and analysed above are discussed below in accordance with the research

questions.

Research question 1: How have UNN undergraduates in 2023 relied on social media for health

messages during the Ebola outbreak of 2014 and the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020, and how has

this reliance evolved over time?

The findings indicated that a majority of UNN undergraduates agreed that they heavily

rely on social media for health messages. Specifically, 54.8% agreed, and 11.2% strongly agreed

with this statement. This indicates a prevalent reliance on social media platforms as sources of

health information among the surveyed population. Also, during the Ebola outbreak of 2014, a

significant portion of respondents also agreed that social media was a valuable source of health

information. 48.2% agreed, and 17.4% strongly agreed. Although the reliance was not as

pronounced as in 2023, it still highlights the role social media played in disseminating health

messages during a public health crisis. This is in line with Okeke et al. (2021) study who

explored how undergraduates in Anambra State perceived and utilized COVID-19 health
 73

information from social media, the study discovered that a significant majority of respondents,

accounting for 67.3%, use social media for such information occasionally.

Comparing the reliance on social media between the Ebola outbreak of 2014 and the

COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 reveals interesting insights. A majority of respondents (48.0%)

agreed that they relied more on social media for health messages during the COVID-19

pandemic than during the Ebola outbreak. This suggests an escalation in the reliance on social

media platforms for health information during more recent health crises.

Furthermore, confidence in the accuracy of health information obtained through social

media seems to have increased over time. In 2023, a majority of respondents (51.8%) agreed that

they were confident in the accuracy of such information. This indicates a growing trust in the

reliability of health-related content shared on social media platforms. The findings also indicated

that a majority of respondents (59.7%) agreed that social media has played a more significant

role in disseminating health information during either the Ebola outbreak or the COVID-19

pandemic. This underscores the pivotal role of social media platforms in spreading awareness

and educating the public during times of health crises.

Therefore, the reliance of UNN undergraduates on social media for health messages has

evolved over time, with an increasing dependence observed during the COVID-19 pandemic

compared to the Ebola outbreak of 2014. Thus, social media continues to serve as a valuable

resource for disseminating health-related content among the student population.

Research question 2: What are the main social media platforms and sources that UNN

undergraduates turn to for health information during these two health crises, and are there

differences in platform preference?

 74

The findings indicated that that Facebook, Twitter and Instagram were the most used social

media platforms by UNN undergraduates for accessing health messages during the Ebola

outbreak of 2014 and the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020. A majority of UNN undergraduates

(26.17%) identified Facebook as their primary source for health messages during both health

crises, followed by Twitter with 23.43% and Instagram with 19.60%. However, YouTube and

WhatsApp were not as instrumental among the population for health information during both

health crises, evident with a response of 16.08% and 14.71% respectively.

It also stated that the choice of social media platforms for health information varied

between the Ebola outbreak of 2014 and the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020. A majority of

respondents (60.0%) agree that the selection of social media platforms differed between the two

health crises. This indicates a shift in platform preference influenced by the nature of the health

crisis and evolving trends in social media usage.

Furthermore, during the Ebola outbreak of 2014, a significant portion of respondents

(63.7%) agreed that they frequently relied on official health organization websites for health

information on social media. This highlights the importance of credible sources in disseminating

accurate health-related content during public health emergencies.

It also indicated a substantial agreement (90.2%) among respondents that the utilization

of video content for health information on social media has increased during the COVID-19

pandemic. This suggests a growing trend towards visual content consumption for health-related

information dissemination, potentially driven by the need for engaging and informative content

in a rapidly evolving health crisis scenario.

A majority of respondents (82.6%) agree that the role of online forums or discussion

groups on social media platforms is vital for sharing health information during both the Ebola
 75

outbreak and the COVID-19 pandemic. This underscores the importance of community

engagement and peer-to-peer support in facilitating health information exchange and

dissemination.

Thus, UNN undergraduates primarily rely on popular social media platforms such as

Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram for obtaining health information during health crises.

However, there are notable differences in platform preference between different health crises,

indicating the dynamic nature of social media usage patterns. Moreover, the utilization of official

health organization websites, video content, and online forums play crucial roles in shaping the

landscape of health information dissemination on social media platforms during public health

emergencies.

Research question 3: How do UNN undergraduates perceive the credibility and trustworthiness

of health information received through social media during the Ebola and COVID-19 outbreaks?

The findings from UNN undergraduates regarding the Ebola outbreak of 2014 reveal that

a majority (56.4%) agree that health information obtained through social media during this time

was credible and trustworthy. This indicates a significant level of trust in the information

disseminated through social media platforms amidst the crisis. In contrast, during the COVID-19

pandemic of 2020, a larger majority (72.2%) of respondents perceive an improvement in the

credibility of health information on social media. This suggests that over time, there has been a

positive shift in the perception of the reliability of health-related content shared on social media

platforms during public health emergencies.

During the Ebola outbreak, a substantial majority (82.3%) of respondents agreed that

there was accuracy in the health information shared by official health organizations on social

media. This underscores the importance of credible sources in providing accurate and
 76

trustworthy trustworthy information to the public during health crises. Similarly, during the

COVID-19 pandemic, a majority (84.7%) of respondents believe that social media platforms

have implemented measures to ensure the accuracy of health information. This reflects efforts by

social media companies to combat misinformation and promote reliable sources of health-related

content during the pandemic.

Interestingly, a significant majority (66.5%) of respondents perceive a strong reliability in

the health information shared by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) on social media

during both health crises. This highlights the role of NGOs in disseminating credible and

trustworthy health information to the public, thereby complementing efforts by official health

organizations.

This alight with the study by Onyechi (2023) who explored the connection between how young

individuals in South West Nigeria perceive the credibility of social media and their behavior in

seeking health information, the study findings stated that that youths perceive social media to be

credible enough and as they perceive these information om social media to be credible it affects

their engagement in seeking online health information increases, and conversely.

Therefore, the perceptions of UNN undergraduates regarding the credibility and

trustworthiness of health information on social media have evolved over time, with an increasing

level of trust observed during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to the Ebola outbreak. Efforts

by social media platforms to implement measures for accuracy, coupled with the role of official

health organizations and NGOs in providing reliable information, have contributed to enhancing

the credibility of health-related content on social media.

 77

Research question 4: What types of health messages, misinformation, and rumors have UNN

undergraduates encountered on social media during these health crises, and how have they

responded to this information?

The findings indicated that a majority of UNN undergraduates (82.8%) have occasionally

encountered accurate and reliable health-related content on social media during the Ebola

outbreak of 2014. This suggests that amidst the prevalence of misinformation, credible health

information was also available on social media platforms during the crisis. In contrast, during the

COVID-19 pandemic of 2020, a larger majority (78.2%) of respondents perceive an increase in

misinformation or rumors related to health on social media compared to the Ebola outbreak. This

highlights the challenges posed by the rapid spread of misinformation in the digital age,

particularly during global health emergencies.

Despite encountering misinformation, a significant majority (66.2%) of respondents

believe that social media platforms were effective in moderating and controlling the spread of

health-related misinformation during the Ebola outbreak of 2014. This suggests that efforts by

social media companies to combat misinformation yielded some success during the crisis. It

further indicated that a majority (84.1%) of respondents perceive notable differences in the types

of health-related misinformation encountered on social media during the Ebola outbreak

compared to the COVID-19 pandemic. This suggests that the nature and content of

misinformation may vary depending on the specific health crisis and prevailing societal

circumstances.

A significant majority (82.1%) of respondents’ report experiencing the sharing of health-

related rumors within their social networks on social media during the COVID-19 pandemic.

This underscores the role of social networks in amplifying and disseminating misinformation,
 78

potentially contributing to public confusion and anxiety during health crises. Subsequently, in

response to misinformation and rumors, a minority of UNN undergraduates employ various

strategies, including fact-checking, seeking information from credible sources, and engaging in

discussions to clarify misconceptions. Additionally, some individuals may choose to report

misinformation to social media platforms or educate their peers about the importance of

verifying information before sharing it.

This is in line with Kehinde et al. (2022) study which focused on the examination of how

social media users in Nigeria engage with Covid-19 information, it indicated that a significant

challenge emerged in the form of fake news, misinformation, and an overwhelming volume of

Covid-19-related information on social media, posing hurdles for users seeking accurate and

reliable information. Therefore, UNN undergraduates encounter a mix of accurate health-related

content, misinformation, and rumors on social media during health crises. While credible

information is available, the prevalence of misinformation poses challenges to public health

communication efforts. Despite efforts by social media platforms to moderate misinformation, its

rapid spread remains a concern, so it is imperative for individuals to critically evaluate

information, rely on credible sources, and actively engage in combating misinformation to

promote public health literacy and mitigate the impact of health-related rumors on social media

platforms.

Research question 5: To what extent has the reliance on social media for health messages

influenced the health-related behaviors, attitudes, and perceptions of UNN undergraduates during

the Ebola and COVID-19 outbreaks?

The findings reveal that a majority of UNN undergraduates (69.8%) agreed that their

health-related behaviors were influenced by information obtained through social media during
 79

the Ebola outbreak of 2014. This indicates that social media played a significant role in shaping

individuals' actions and decisions related to health practices during the crisis. Similarly, during

the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020, a larger majority (70.8%) of respondents agreed that their

attitudes towards health practices were shaped by social media. This suggests that social media

platforms influenced individuals' perceptions and beliefs regarding various health-related

practices, including preventive measures and healthcare-seeking behaviors.

Also, a significant majority (86.9%) of respondents agreed that the increased reliance on

social media for health information during the COVID-19 pandemic led to changes in their

health-related behaviors compared to the Ebola outbreak. This indicates a shift in behaviors

influenced by the evolving nature of social media usage and the unique challenges posed by each

health crisis. During the Ebola outbreak, a substantial majority (89.3%) of respondents agreed

that social media played a significant role in influencing public attitudes towards vaccination.

This highlights the power of social media platforms in shaping perceptions and behaviors related

to public health interventions, such as vaccination campaigns.

It also indicated that a majority (75.4%) of respondents believe that social media has

contributed to the dissemination of accurate health information and promotion of healthy

behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite concerns about misinformation, social media

platforms have also served as valuable channels for sharing reliable information and encouraging

positive health practices. This is in line with Waititu (2021) study which aimed to evaluate the

extent of social media usage among students in tertiary institutions, its impact on them, and their

perception of social media as a reliable source of COVID-19 information, the study discovered

that that most COVID-19 information is acquired from social media, contributing significantly to
 80

awareness. Additionally, a majority acknowledged the use of social media platforms for sharing

COVID-19 information.

A noteworthy revelation was the substantial influence of social media on users, with

majority agreeing that they are influenced by the platforms they subscribe to. This underscores

the platforms' role in disseminating crucial COVID-19 information based on users' preferences, it

also indicated a high reliance on social media among undergraduates for accessing health

messages during health crises, the study affirm a high reliance on social media during the Covid-

19 virus outbreak which confirms the hypothesis that users have a tendency to actively search for

health messages during times of emerging health issues more than they would during regular

circumstances. Thus, the reliance on social media for health messages has exerted a significant

influence on the health-related behaviors, attitudes, and perceptions of UNN undergraduates

during the Ebola outbreak of 2014 and the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020. Social media platforms

have played pivotal roles in shaping individuals' actions, beliefs, and responses to public health

crises, highlighting their potential as powerful tools for health communication and behavior

change interventions.
 81

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

The overarching objective of this study is to analyze the reliance on social media for

health messages among undergraduates in the university of Nigeria Nsukka: A Case Study of the

Ebola Outbreak and Covid 19 Pandemic. Multi-stage sampling technique comprising Purposive,

simple random and accidental sampling techniques were used in making sure that data was

collated from the respondents. The online Australian calculator provided by the National

Statistical Service (NSS) of Australia was used to get the 367 respondents that form the sample

size.

The study investigates investigate the patterns and trends in the reliance on social media

for health messages among UNN undergraduates in 2023, comparing their experiences during

the Ebola outbreak of 2014 and the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020, it also identify the primary

social media platforms and information sources utilized by UNN undergraduates for health

information during these two health crises and to assess any platform-specific differences, it

further aimed to assess the perceived credibility and trustworthiness of health information

disseminated through social media platforms during the Ebola and COVID-19 outbreaks as

reported by UNN undergraduates.

It further analyzed the types of health-related content, misinformation, and rumors

encountered on social media by UNN undergraduates during these crises and to examine their

responses to such information and examined the influence of social media reliance on the health-

related behaviors, attitudes, and perceptions of UNN undergraduates during the Ebola and
 82

COVID-19 outbreaks, providing insights into the impact of social media on public health

communication.

The findings from the survey of UNN undergraduates shed light on the evolving

dynamics of reliance on social media for health messages, the platforms preferred for obtaining

health information, perceptions of credibility and trustworthiness of health information,

encounters with misinformation, and the influence of social media on health-related behaviors,

attitudes, and perceptions during the Ebola outbreak of 2014 and the COVID-19 pandemic of

2020.

According to the findings, majority of UNN undergraduates heavily rely on social media

for health messages, with an increasing trend observed during the COVID-19 pandemic

compared to the Ebola outbreak, popular social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and

Instagram are the primary sources of health information for the surveyed population. Thus, while

there is a notable reliance on social media for health information, perceptions of credibility and

trustworthiness have improved over time, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic and

official health organization websites and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are perceived

as credible sources of health information on social media platforms.

Furthermore, UNN undergraduates frequently encounter both accurate and unreliable

health-related content on social media, with misinformation and rumors becoming more

prevalent during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite challenges posed by misinformation, a

majority of UNN undergraduates did not engage in fact checking information gotten from social

media during both crises, creating a concern. Regardless, social media plays a significant role in

shaping health-related behaviors, attitudes, and perceptions, with a majority of respondents

 83

indicating changes in behavior and attitudes influenced by information obtained through social

media platforms.

Also, during both health crises, social media platforms have contributed to the

dissemination of accurate health information and promotion of healthy behaviors, including

public attitudes towards vaccination. Therefore, the findings underscore the pivotal role of social

media in health communication and behavior change interventions during public health

emergencies, while social media platforms serve as valuable sources of health information,

efforts to combat misinformation and promote the dissemination of accurate and reliable content

remain essential to harnessing their full potential in promoting public health literacy and

mitigating the impact of health-related rumors during crises.

5.2 Conclusion

The findings from the study provide valuable insights into the reliance on social media

for health messages among UNN undergraduates during the Ebola outbreak of 2014 and the

COVID-19 pandemic of 2020, shedding light on the evolution of this reliance over time, the

preferred platforms for obtaining health information, perceptions of credibility and

trustworthiness, encounters with misinformation, and the influence on health-related behaviors,

attitudes, and perceptions.

This, the study highlights a prevalent reliance on social media platforms for health

messages among UNN undergraduates, with an increasing trend observed during the COVID-19

pandemic compared to the Ebola outbreak. This underscores the evolving role of social media as

a primary source of health information, reflecting the changing dynamics of information

dissemination and consumption in the digital age.

 84

Also, the findings emphasize the significance of popular social networking sites such as

Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram as preferred sources of health-related content among the

surveyed population. However, differences in platform preference between different health crises

indicate the dynamic nature of social media usage patterns, influenced by the nature of the crisis

and evolving trends in social media usage.

Furthermore, the perceptions of credibility and trustworthiness of health information

shared on social media have improved over time, with a growing level of trust observed during

the COVID-19 pandemic compared to the Ebola outbreak. Efforts by social media platforms to

implement measures for accuracy, coupled with the role of official health organizations and

NGOs in providing reliable information, have contributed to enhancing the credibility of health-

related content on social media.

Also, UNN undergraduates frequently encounter both accurate and unreliable health-

related content on social media, with misinformation and rumors becoming more prevalent

during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite challenges posed by misinformation, social media

platforms are perceived as effective in moderating and controlling the spread of health-related

misinformation, reflecting the platforms' ongoing efforts to combat misinformation.

Subsequently, the study underscores the significant influence of social media on health-

related behaviors, attitudes, and perceptions among UNN undergraduates during public health

crises. Social media platforms have played pivotal roles in shaping individuals' actions, beliefs,

and responses to public health emergencies, highlighting their potential as powerful tools for

health communication and behavior change interventions. Therefore, the findings underscore the

importance of leveraging social media platforms effectively in public health communication

 85

efforts, while also highlighting the need for continued efforts to combat misinformation and

promote public health literacy

5.3 Recommendations

Arising from the findings and conclusion, the study recommends:

1. There is a need to implement educational campaigns aimed at improving health literacy

among UNN undergraduates regarding the evaluation of health information on social media,

provide guidelines and resources for discerning credible sources, fact-checking, and critically

analyzing health-related content to mitigate the impact of misinformation.

2. Health campaigns and communication strategies aimed at UNN undergraduates should be

tailored to the primary social media platforms utilized by them for health information, which

include Twitter, Facebook and Instagram. Understanding platform-specific differences can

improve the effectiveness of health communication efforts.

3. Partnerships between social media platforms and official health organizations should be

strengthened to ensure the dissemination of accurate and reliable health information during

public health emergencies, collaborate on campaigns to promote trustworthy sources, debunk

myths, and address health-related misconceptions circulating on social media.

4. The growing trend of visual content consumption on social media platforms should be

leveraged by creating engaging and informative health-related videos, collaborate with

influencers, health experts, and content creators to produce visually appealing and evidence-

based content addressing key health topics and promoting positive health behaviors. This
 86

includes encouraging UNN undergraduates to report misinformation encountered on social

media.

5. Health literacy and digital literacy education should be integrated into the curriculum for UNN

undergraduates. Empowering students with knowledge and skills to navigate social media

responsibly can positively influence their health-related behaviors and perceptions during health

crises.

5.4 Limitations of the Study

The scarcity of literature pertaining to the social media engagement and health-related

behavior of Nigerian undergraduates during the 2014 Ebola outbreak has hindered the

availability of substantial empirical evidence regarding their reliance on social media for health

messages during the crisis, in contrast to the abundance of literature addressing undergraduates'

utilization of social media during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Consequently, this limited the Empirical review to undergraduates’ social media

engagement, reliance and health-related behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic only.
 87

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y_in_predicting_continuance_intention_to_use_ubiquitous_media_systems
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APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE

Department of Mass Communication,

University of Nigeria,
Nsukka.
20th February, 2024

Dear Respondent,

My name is Uka Chikwesiri Obasi, a final year student of Mass Communication. I am carrying

out a study on “The Reliance on Social Media for Health Messages Among Undergraduates in

the University of Nigeria Nsukka: A Comparative Case Study of the Ebola Outbreak and Covid

19 Pandemic" Please I am soliciting your candid response on the following survey questions.

Your responses will be treated with confidentiality, and the data collected will be used for

research purposes only. Please answer the below questions to the best of your ability.

Yours Faithfully,

Uka Chikwesiri Obasi

(Researcher)
 91

INSTRUCTIONS

SECTION A: (DEMOGRAOHIC DATA)

Please Tick () in the appropriate boxes that match your answers.

Give only one answer in each case

1. Gender: a) Male [ ] b) Female [ ]

2. Age: a) 18-20 years [ ] b) 21-25 years [ ] c) 26-30 years [ ] d) Above 30 years [ ]

3. Educational level a) 100 b) 200 c) 300 d) 400 d) 500

4. Faculty a) Faculty Of Arts [ ] b) Faculty Of Social sciences [ ] c) Faculty Of Agriculture [ ]

d) Faculty Of Biological Sciences [ ] e) Faculty Of Physical Sciences [ ] f) Faculty Of Education

[ ] g) Faculty Of Engineering [ ] h) Faculty Of Pharmaceutical [ ] i) Faculty Of Veterinary

Medicine [ ] j) Faculty Of Vocational and Technical Education (VTE) [ ]

SECTION B: (PSYCHOGRAPHIC DATA)

Instruction: Please tick R in options SA (Strongly Agree), A ( Agree), SD ( Strongly Disagree),

D ( Disagree) to investigate the patterns and trends in the reliance on social media for health

messages among UNN undergraduates in 2023, comparing their experiences during the Ebola

outbreak of 2014 and the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020

S/ QUESTIONS S A SD D

N A
 92

1 I rely heavily on social media for health messages in 2023?

2 Social media are a valuable source of health information for me

during the Ebola outbreak of 2014

3 In comparison to the Ebola outbreak in 2014, I find myself relying

more on social media for health messages during the COVID-19

pandemic in 2020

4 I am confident in the accuracy of health information obtained through

social media in 2023

5. Social media have played a more significant role in disseminating

health information during the Ebola outbreak or the COVID-19

pandemic

Instruction: Please tick R in options to identify the primary social media platforms and

information sources utilized by UNN undergraduates for health information during these two

health crises and to assess any platform-specific differences

1. Which specific social media platform did you primarily use for accessing health messages

during the Ebola outbreak and the COVID-19 pandemic?

Facebook [], WhatsApp [], Instagram [], Twitter [], YouTube []

Instruction: Please tick R in options SA (Strongly Agree), A ( Agree), SD ( Strongly Disagree),

D ( Disagree) to identify the primary social media platforms and information sources utilized by
 93

UNN undergraduates for health information during these two health crises and to assess any

platform-specific differences

S/ QUESTIONS S A SD D

N A

1 The choice of social media platforms for health information during

the Ebola outbreak of 2014 differed from those during the COVID-19

pandemic in 2020

2 I frequently rely on official health organization websites for health

information on social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014

3 The utilization of video content for health information on social media

has increased during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

4 The role of online forums or discussion groups on social media

platforms is vital for sharing health information during both the Ebola

outbreak and the COVID-19 pandemic

Instruction: Please tick R in options SA (Strongly Agree), A ( Agree), SD ( Strongly Disagree),

D ( Disagree) to assess the perceived credibility and trustworthiness of health information

disseminated through social media platforms during the Ebola and COVID-19 outbreaks as

reported by UNN undergraduates

 94

S/ QUESTIONS S A SD D

N A

1 Health information obtained through social media during the Ebola

outbreak of 2014 was credible and trustworthy

2 The credibility of health information on social media has improved

during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

3 There is an accuracy in the health information shared by official

health organizations on social media during the Ebola outbreak of

2014

4 Social media platforms have implemented measures to ensure the

accuracy of health information during the COVID-19 pandemic in

2020

5. There is a strong reliability in the health information shared from non-

governmental organizations (NGOs) on social media during both

health crises

Instruction: Please tick R in options SA (Strongly Agree), A ( Agree), SD ( Strongly Disagree),

D ( Disagree) to analyze the types of health-related content, misinformation, and rumors

encountered on social media by UNN undergraduates during these crises and to examine their

responses to such information

S/ QUESTIONS S A SD D
 95

N A

1 I have occassionally encountered accurate and reliable health-related

content on social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014 and

COVID-19 pandemic of 2020

2 There is an increase in misinformation or rumors related to health on

social media during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 compared to the

Ebola outbreak

3 I fact checked health messages received through social media during

the Ebola outbreak and COVID-19 pandemic before believing and

sharing them

4 There is a notable difference in the types of health-related

misinformation encountered on social media during the Ebola

outbreak compared to the COVID-19 pandemic

5. I have experienced the sharing of health-related rumors within social

network on social media during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

Instruction: Please tick R in options SA (Strongly Agree), A ( Agree), SD ( Strongly Disagree),

D ( Disagree) to examine the influence of social media reliance on the health-related behaviors,

attitudes, and perceptions of UNN undergraduates during the Ebola and COVID-19 outbreaks,

providing insights into the impact of social media on public health communication

S/ QUESTIONS S A SD D
 96

N A

1 My health-related behaviors were influenced by information obtained

through social media during the Ebola outbreak of 2014

2 My attitudes towards health practices were shaped by social media

during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

3 The increased reliance on social media for health information during

the COVID-19 pandemic has led to changes in my health-related

behaviors compared to the Ebola outbreak

4 Social media played a significant role in influencing public attitudes

towards vaccination during the Ebola outbreak

5 Social media have contributed to the dissemination of accurate health

information and promotion of healthy behaviors during the COVID-

19 pandemic in 2020