984 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

(ii) Solar radiation through windows and other glass in not important since the load is
calculated before sunrise.
(iii) Sensible and latent heat gains from occupants
(iv) Heat gain from lights, appliances and motors, etc.
(v) Latent heat addition by cooking, hot baths or moisture producing equipment in air-
conditioned space.
(vi) Sensible and latent heat addition by materials or products brought into air conditioned
space.
(vii) Sensible and latent heat gain by infiltration
(viii) Supply air duct heat loss, latent and sensible heat loss due to leakage of air from supply
air duct.
(ix) Sensible and latent heat loss due to leakage of air from return air duct.
The sum is classified under the headings of sensible and latent heat loads for the room and the
total heat load.
During winter months the outside humidity ratio is very low, hence infiltration decreases the
room humidity ratio while occupancy and appliances increase it. The net result may be a very
small room latent heat load. The ventilation load decreases the humidity ratio; as a result the
humidification of air is required by the air-conditioning apparatus. The heat is lost to the surroundings
while occupancy, lights and appliances add heat to the room and reduce the heating load. Supply
air duct and return air duct lose warm air (compared to surroundings), hence it is a heating load.
The cooling load estimate is illustrated by the following example.

EXAMPLE 21.14 Determine the various cooling loads for the single-storey, 4 m high building
with 20 m wide wall facing north and 30 m long wall facing west. The west, north and south walls
have four, one and two windows respectively, each of which is 2 m wide and 1.5 m high. There is
one door 1.5 m wide and 2 m high, each on the east, south and north walls. The place is near
Kolkata having the same longitude and 20o latitude. The highest load occurs say on June 21. Ten
per cent of the supply air duct runs in the non-conditioned space.
The inside design conditions are: 25oC dbt and 50% relative humidity.
The outdoor design conditions are: 43oC dbt, 27oC wbt, 12oC daily range, and 25 km/h
wind velocity.
Occupancy : 100 persons doing office work
Lighting : 15,000 W fluorescent and 4000 W incandescent
The walls are : 241 mm common brick with 12.5 mm plaster on both the sides
The roof : 112.5 mm RCC and 112.5 mm lime concrete
The floor : 200 mm concrete
Door : 37.5 mm hard wood
Window glass: 6.35 mm plane window glass
ho = 35 W/m2-K, hi = 8.5 W/m2-K, kbrick = 0.77 W/m-K, kplaster = 1.15 W/m-K,
krcc = 1.73 W/m-K, klimec = 0.71 W/m-K, kwood = 0.158 W/m-K and kglass = 0.78 W/m-K,
rbrick =1800 kg/m3, rplaster = 1860 kg/m3, rrcc = 2200 kg/m3, rlimec = 1550 kg/m3.
 Load Calculations 985

Solution:
Overall heat transfer coefficients
Walls:
1 1
Uo = = = 2.008 W/m 2 -K
1 x p xb x p 1 1 0.0125 0.241 0.0125 1
+ + + + + + + +
ho k p kb k p hi 35 1.15 0.77 1.15 8.5

Wall mass, m = 0.241(1800) + 2(0.0125) (1860) = 480.3 kg/m2

1
Roof: Uo = = 2.62 W/m 2 -K
1 0.1125 0.1125 0.0125 1
+ + + +
35 0.71 1.73 1.15 8.5
Mass, m = 0.1125(2200) + 0.1125(1550) + 0.0125(1860) = 445.1 kg/m2
Floor: Assuming that free convection heat transfer coefficient for floor is also 8.5 W/m2,
1
Uo = = 4.3 W/m 2 -K
0.2 1
+
1.73 8.5
1
Door: Uo = = 2.607 W/m 2 -K
1 0.0375 1
+ +
35 0.158 8.5
1
Window: Uo = = 6.52 W/m 2 -K
1 0.00625 1
+ +
35 0.78 8.5
Areas:
West: Glass : 4(2 × 1.5) = 12 m2; Door : 0.0; Wall : 30 × 4 – 12 = 108 m2
South: Glass : 2(2 × 1.5) = 6 m2; Door : 3 m2 ; Wall : 20 × 4 – 6 – 3 = 71 m2
East: Glass : = 0 m2; Door : 3 m2 ; Wall : 30 × 4 – 0 – 3 = 117 m2
North: Glass : (2 × 1.5) = 3 m2; Door : 3 m2 ; Wall : 20 × 4 – 3 – 3 = 74 m2
Roof: 600 m2
Floor: 600 m2
Corrections to DtE: (to – ti) = 43 – 25 = 18oC \ Correction for (to – ti) = 18 – 8.3 = 9.7oC
Correction for DR: Difference in DR = 12 – 11.1 = 0.9: Correction = 0.25 × 0.9 ª 0.25oC
Total Correction = 9.7 + 0.25 = 9.95 oC
Interpolation for wall and roof mass: The wall mass is 480 kg/m2 while the values are
tabulated for m = 319 and 532 kg/m2. Let DtE1 and DtE2 be the values of equivalent temperatures
at m = 319 and 532 respectively.
986 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

480 - 319
Then, the interpolated value for m = 480 is Dt E = Dt E1 + ( Dt E 2 - Dt E1 )
532 - 319
= DtE1 + 0.7558(DtE2 – DtE1)
Similarly, for the roof we have m = 445 while values are tabulated for m = 318 and 524.
Hence, the interpolated value for m = 445 is DtE = DtE1 + 0.6146(DtE2 – DtE1)
The interpolated values for various solar times are given in the following table.
Solar East South West North Roof
time DtE DtE DtE DtE DtE

2:00 pm DtE1: 7.8 13.3 5.4 3.3 15

12.0 8.31 4.67 1.64 14.63
DtE2: 13.3 6.7 4.4 1.1 14.4
3:00 pm DtE1: 7.2 13.9 10.6 4.4 17.2
10.15 9.67 6.74 2.36 16.22
DtE2: 11.1 8.3 5.5 1.7 16.6
4:00 pm DtE1: 6.7 14.4 14.4 5.5 19.4
9.19 10.24 8.58 3.0 18.42
DtE2: 10.0 8.9 6.7 2.2 17.8
5:00 pm DtE1: 7.2 12.3 18.9 6.1 21.1
6.48 10.68 11.72 3.6 20.05
DtE2: 8.9 10.0 9.4 2.8 19.4
6:00 pm DtE1: 7.8 11.1 22.2 6.7 21.7
7.8 10.27 13.81 3.75 21.02
DtE2: 7.8 10.0 11.1 2.8 20.6
7:00 pm DtE1: 7.2 8.3 22.8 6.7 21.1
7.65 8.3 16.07 3.75 20.79
DtE2: 7.8 8.3 13.9 2.8 20.6
8:00 pm DtE1: 6.7 6.7 20.0 6.7 20.0
7.53 7.53 16.67 4.96 19.63
DtE2: 7.8 7.8 15.6 4.4 19.4
9:00 pm DtE1: 6.1 5.5 15.6 5.5 18.9
6.93 6.4 15.15 4.29 18.9
DtE2: 7.2 6.7 15.0 3.9 18.9

Applying the correction to Equivalent temperature by adding 9.95oC, we get DtE corrected as
follows:
Solar time East South West North Roof

2:00 pm 21.95 18.26 14.62 11.59 24.58

3:00 pm 20.1 19.62 16.69 12.31 26.17
4:00 pm 19.14 20.19 18.53 12.93 28.37
5:00 pm 18.43 20.63 21.67 13.55 30.0
6:00 pm 17.75 20.22 23.76 13.7 30.97
7:00 pm 17.6 18.25 26.02 13.7 30.74
8:00 pm 17.48 17.48 26.62 14.91 29.58
9:00 pm 16.88 16.35 25.1 14.24 28.85

The outdoor air temperatures, Dt = to – ti and SHGFs are as follows:

 Load Calculations 987

Solar time 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00
% DR 3 0 3 10 21 34 47 58
to, oC 42.64 43 42.64 41.8 40.48 38.92 37.36 36.04
Dt = to – ti 17.64 18 17.64 16.8 15.48 13.92 12.36 11.04
SHGF : West 303 451 505 467 256
SHGF : South 44 444 38 28 9
SHGF : North 60 79 104 129 88

Sensible Heat Gains

Heat Gains from Walls, Roof, Floor and Windows
For walls and roof, heat gain is calculated by Uo A DtE
For doors it is calculated by Uo A Dt : It could have been calculated by using (DtE)corrected for
m = 106 kg/m2. This is an assumption, which is good for east and north walls.
For windows: The solar heat gain is found by multiplying SHGF by the area of glass. The
convective heat transfer rate is found by Uo A Dt as recommended.
For floor, the temperature difference has been assumed to be 2.5oC.
For partition walls, it is recommended that the temperature on the partition side be taken as
(to – 2.5) so that the temperature difference is (Dt – 2.5).
The results are given in the following table:
Solar time 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00

Walls : Uo = 2.008;
AUoDtE
West : 108 × 2.008 × DtE 3170.5 3619.5 4018.5 4699.5 5153.0 5643.0 5773.0 5443.0
South : 71 × 2.008 × DtE 2603.0 2797.0 2878.5 2941.0 2833.0 2602.0 2492.0 2331.0
East : 117 × 2.008 × DtE 5157.0 4722.0 4497.0 4330.0 4170.0 4135.0 4107.0 3966.0
North : 74 × 2.008 × DtE 1722.0 1829.0 1921.0 2013.0 2036.0 2136.0 2215.0 2116.0
Roof : 600 × 2.62 × DtE 38640.0 41139.0 44598.0 47160.0 48685.0 48323.0 46500.0 45352.0
Floor : 600 × 4.3 × 2.5 6450.0 6450.0 6450.0 6450.0 6450.0 6450.0 6450.0 6450.0
Windows: Uo = 6.5;
AUoDt
West : 12 × 6.5 × Dt 1376.0 1404.0 1376.0 1310.0 1207.0 1086.0 964.0 861.0
South : 6 × 6.5 × Dt 688.0 702.0 688.0 650.0 603.0 543.0 482.0 431.0
North : 3 × 6.5 × Dt 344.0 351.0 344.0 325.0 301.0 272.0 241.0 215.0
Doors : Uo = 2.607, total area
9.0 m2 ; 9 × 2.607 × Dt 414.0 422.0 414.0 394.0 363.0 327.0 290.0 259.0
Glass : Area × SHGF 3636.0 5412.0 6060.0 5604.0 3072.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
West : 12 × SHGF 264.0 264.0 228.0 168.0 54.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
South : 6 × SHGF 180.0 237.0 312.0 387.0 264.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Subtotal 64644.0 69348.0 73785.0 76439.0 75192.0 71517.0 69514.0 67424.0
988 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

It is observed that the heat gain through walls, roof, windows and doors is maximum at 5:00 pm.
This is usually the case for a building with medium construction. Solar radiation is maximum at
solar noon and the air temperature is maximum at 3:00 pm. Sol-air temperature will be maximum
around 1:00 pm. The time lag seems to be about 4 hours.
Maximum heat gain from walls, roof windows and doors at 5:00 pm = 76439.0 W.
Infiltration
Windows: The windows are double-hung windows and are assumed to be non-weather-stripped
and poor fit (worst possible case) Wind velocity is 25 kmph. Interpolating in Table 21.23, we get
Infiltration rate = 10.3 + (14.3 – 10.3)/8 = 10.8 m3/h per m crack length.
Total crack length for seven windows = 7(2 × 2 + 3 × 1.5) = 59.5 m
Infiltration through all the windows = 59.5 × 10.8 = 642.6 m3/h
Doors: Assume that the doors are non-weather-stripped poor fit. From Table 21.24, infiltration
at 24 km/h and 32 km/h are 0.17 and 0.24 cmm per m2 respectively. Interpolating, we get
Infiltration rate = 0.17 + (0.24 – 0.17)/8 = 0.179 cmm = 10.8 m3/h per m crack length
For three doors, total crack length = 3(2 × 1.5 + 3 × 2) = 27 m
Infiltration through all the doors = 27.0 × 10.8 = 291.6 m3/h
Door openings: Assume that traffic is 50 persons per hour, that is, half the persons go out. Since
they go out they will come back too. Hence there will be 2 × 50 = 100 door openings per hour. In
the absence of data on door, we assume that the doors are of swinging type with only one half in
operating condition, the other half being closed. Hence we take the data from Table 21.27 for
0.91 m swinging hospital door (office door is not listed).
Infiltration rate = 5.9 m3/h per person
Infiltration due to door opening = 5.9 × 100 = 590.0 m3/h
Total Infiltration = 642.6 + 291.6 + 590.0 = 1524.2 m3/h
Let us find the air changes corresponding to the infiltration rate, volume of the room = 20 × 30
× 4 = 2400 m3
Therefore the number of air changes = 1524.2/2400 = 0.635 air changes.
As a thumb rule, one air change is assumed in such offices. It is observed that the actual air
change is less than one.
From Eq. 21.62(b) for loose fit and from Table 21.19(c), we have a = 0.25, b= 0.02 and
c = 0.022.
V = 25 km/h = 6.94 m/s, to – ti = 43 – 25 = 18°C
Air changes = a + bV + C (to – ti) = 0.25 + 0.02 × 6.94 + 0.022(18) = 0.7848 air changes.
This is close to the result from the empirical values in Tables 21.23, 21.24 and 21.27.
Cooling load due to Infiltration
Outdoor: to = 43oC and to* = 27oC
From psychrometric calculations:
Wo = 0.016 kgw/kga, RH = 29%, h = 85.0 kJ/kga
Indoor: ti = 25oC and RH = 50% : From psychrometric calculations:
 Load Calculations 989

Wi = 0.01 kgw/kga, h = 50.85 kJ/kga

Infiltration = 1524.2 m3/h = 25.4 cmm = Qv
Sensible heat gain due to infiltration (OASH) = 20.4 Qv (43 – 25) = 20.4 × 25.4 × 18
= 9327.0 W (B)
Latent heat gain due to infiltration (OALH) = 50000(25.4)(0.016 – 0.01) = 7620.0 W (C)
Occupancy
Assume that the occupants do moderate work. From Table 21.13.10, sensible and latent heat load
per person is 73 watts and 59 watts respectively. Therefore, for 100 persons
Occupancy load, sensible for 100 persons = 7300 W (D)
Occupancy load, latent for 100 persons = 5900 W (E)
Lighting: 15, 000 W fluorescent = 1.25 × 15,000 = 18,750 W
4000 W tungsten = 4000 W
Lighting sensible load = 22,750 W (F)
Room Sensible Heat Gain (RSH)
A. Heat gain from walls, roof, floor ,windows and doors = 76,439.0 W
B. Infiltration = 9327.0 W
D. Occupancy = 7300.0 W
F. Lighting = 22,750.0 W
Appliances = 0.0
Sub total A = 11,5816.0 W
Safety factor 5% = 5791.0 W
Sub-total B = 12,1607.0 W
System heat gains
(a) Leakage heat transfer in the 10% SA duct in non-conditioned space = 0.5% of RSH
(b) Leakage of supply air in the 10% SA duct in non-conditioned space = 1.0% of RSH
(c) Fan motor = 5.0% of RSH
(d) Return air runs in conditioned space = 0.0%
(e) There is no dehumidifier = 0.0%
Total system heat gain = 6.5% of RSH
6.5% of sub-total B = 7904 W
Room Sensible Heat Gain (RSH) = 129511 W
Room Latent Heat Gain
C. Infiltration = 7620.0 W
E. Occupancy = 5900.0 W
Appliances = 0.0
Sub-total A = 13,520.0
Safety factor 5% = 676 W
Sub-total B = 14,196.0 W
990 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

System heat gains

Leakage in 10% of the supply air duct outside the non-conditioned space = 1% of RLH
System heat gain 1% of sub-total B = 142.0 W
Room Latent Heat Gain (RLH) = 14338.00 W
Ventilation: The ventilation requirement is the fresh air requirement for persons. The
minimum value from the table in Carrier Handbook is 0.33 cmm per person.
For 100 persons, fresh outdoor air requirement = 33.0 cmm
Outside Air Sensible Heat Load (OASH) = 20.4(33.0)(43 – 25) = 12118 W
Outside Air Latent Heat Load (OALH) = 50000(33)(0.016 – 0.01) = 9900.0 W
OATH = 22,018 W
Total Sensible Heat Load, TSH, = 129,511.0 + 12,118.0 = 141,629.0 W
Total Latent Heat Load, TLH = 14,338 + 9700 = 24238.0 W
Grand Total Heat Load, GTH = 141,629.0 + 24,238.0 = 165,867.0 W
Cooling Load = 165,867/3516.7 = 47.16 TR
On per Unit Area Basis = 0.0786 TR per m2 or 0.8 TR per 10 m2
Supply Air Flow Rate
This is determined by Effective Sensible Heat Factor method.
ERSH = RSH + X(OASH) and
ERLH = RLH + X(OALH)
We assume a bypass factor X of 0.15, which is typical of comfort air conditioning
ERSH = 129,511 + (0.15)12118 = 131,329 W
ERLH = 14,338 + (0.15)9900 = 15,823 W
ERTH = ERSH + ERLH = 13,1329 + 15,823 = 147,152 W
ESHF = ERSH/ERTH = 131,329/147,152 = 0.89247
The apparatus dew point is not known. A suitable value above 10oC may be assumed for it and
supply airflow rate can be found by trial and error satisfying ERSH, ERLH and the bypass factor.
In the following calculations, we use the indoor condition, i.e. Apparatus dew point table given in
Carrier Handbook. The ADP table for 25oC indoor temperature and 50% relative humidity is as
follows.
ESHF 1.00 0.94 0.84 0.77 0.73 0.7 0.68 0.65 0.63
ADP (oC) 13.89 13.33 12.22 11.11 18.0 8.89 7.78 5.55 2.78
ADP (oF) 57 56 54 52 50 48 46 42 37
Interpolating in this Table for ESHF = 0.89247, we get ADP = 55.05oF = 12.8oC
We assume that the supply air state calculated by using ESHF line is very close to the one on
intersection of RSHF line and GSHF lines. We denote this state by 2¢ while the actual state is
denoted by 2.
 Load Calculations 991

Dehumidified temperature rise under this assumption,

Dt = (ti – t2’) ª (ti – t2) + (1 – X)(ti – tADP) = (1 – 0.15)(25 – 12.8) = 10.37oC
Hence, the air enters the room at t2’ = (25 – 10.37) = 14.63oC

ERSH 131,329
\ (cmm)d = = = 620.8 cmm
20.4 (1 - X )(ti - tADP ) 20.4 ¥ 10.37
\ Supply air flow rate = Qvs = 620.8 cmm
Given outside air flow rate = Qvo = 33 cmm
\ Recirculatd air flow rate = Qvr = 620.8 – 33 = 587.8 cmm
Assuming adiabatic mixing of outdoor air and recirculated air and assuming that the densities
of the streams are approximately the same,
Temperature of mixed air,

Qvr ti + Qvo to 588(25) + 33(43)

t1 = = = 29.95∞C
Qvs 620.8
This is the inlet state to the cooling coil. Using bypass factor and apparatus dew point,
t2 = tADP + X(t1 – tADP) = 12.8 + 0.15(25.95 – 12.8) = 14.77
This is very close to t2¢ = 14.67oC.

REFERENCES
Alford, J.S., Ryan J.E. and Urban F.O. (1939): ASHVE Trans., Vol. 45, pp. 387–392.
ASHVE Trans. (1944): Vol. 50, p. 293.
ASHVE Trans. (1948): Vol. 54, pp. 281–296.
ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals Volume (1993): American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, Ga, 26.33–26.34.
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals Volume (1989): American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, Ga, 26.33–26.34.
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals Volume (1997): American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, Ga.
ASHRAE Trans., Vol. 69, p. 31.
Carrier Air Conditioning Co., Handbook of Air Conditioning System Design (1965): McGraw
Hill, New York.
Cobientz, C.W. and Achenbach, F.R. (1963): Field measuremets of air infiltration in ten electrically
heated houses, ASHRAE Trans, Vol. 69, pp. 358–365.
Mackey, C.O. and Wright L.J., Jr. (1944): Periodic heat flow—Homogeneous walls and roofs,
ASHVE Trans., p. 293.