Chapter 9 – Collection of primary data by observation
9.1 Why observations matters
When one’s research questions and objectives concern the things that people do, it is obvious to discover this
by watch them do it. Observation involves the systematic observation, recording, description, analysis and
interpretation of people’s behaviour. This chapter examines two kinds of observation:
• Participant observation – qualitative, derived from social anthropology
• Structured observation – quantitative, concerned with the frequency of actions
Other research approaches than observation usually focus on two distinct kinds of people that participate to
the research: respondents (those who simply complete questionnaires) and participants ( those who take
part in most types of qualitative research). These labels do not work with observation, since the researcher is
actually participating in the environment of the people he observes. Thus, in observational research those
who are being observed are called ‘informants’.
9.2 Participant observation
When one conducts research through participant observation one attempts to participate fully in the lives
and daily activities of informants and thus becomes a member of their organisation, group or community.
This makes it possible for the researcher to share their experience not only by merely observing what is
happening but also by feeling it.
One of the purposes of participant observation is to discover the delicate nuances of meaning behind
the respondent’s comment which are not likely to be found using questionnaires for example. By immersing
himself in the research setting the researcher is able to achieve this goal.
Participant observation finds some of its roots in symbolic interactionism where an individual derives a
sense of identity from interaction and communication with others and through this process constantly
adjusts his or her understanding of reality. Participant observation enables the researcher to get to the
bottom of the processes by which individuals constantly construct and reconstruct their identities.
Types of participant observation
There exist four types of participant observation:
• Complete participant – researcher becomes a member of the group in which he is performing
researcher. Doing so he doesn’t reveal his true purpose to the members (this may raise questions of
ethics).
• Complete observer – researcher does not reveal the purpose of the activity to the members of the
group, but he does not take part in the activities of the group.
• Observer-as-participant – researcher only observes (does not participate in) the activities of the
group, although his purpose is known to those whom he is studying.
• Participant-as-observer – researchers takes part in the activities of the group and also reveals his
purpose as a researcher.
Data analysis and collection
It is important to make notes when conducting observation-based research. Four types can be distinguished:
• Primary observations: data that explain what happened or what was said at the time (like in a diary).
• Secondary data: statements by observers of what happened or what was said; this involves
interpretations.
• Experiential data: data on perceptions and feelings as the researcher experiences the process he is
researching.
• Contextual data: data related to the research setting.
Data collection
Robson (2011) argues that the process of data collection always starts with ‘descriptive observation’. This is
when the researcher concentrates on observing and describing the physical setting, key informants and their
activities, particular events and their sequence and finally the attendant processes and emotions involved.
After stage the researcher is able to write a ‘narrative account’ in which he develops a framework of
theory that will help him to understand and explain to other what is going on in the research setting. In order
to do this it may be helpful to focus on particular events through ‘focused observation’.
Data analysis
Just like other qualitative data, those collected form participant observation will start to be analysed from the
minute one collects them. In other words, data collection and analysis occur simultaneously.
Reliability and validity
Participant observation has high ‘ecological validity’ since it is concerned with studying informants and their
activities in their natural settings. Still, this research method may lead to a number of issues related to
reliability and validity: observer error, observer bias, observer effect.
Observer error occurs when a researcher’s lack of understand of, or overfamiliarity with, the setting in
which he is trying to operate as an observer may lead to unintentional misinterpretations of what is
happening. Observer error does not occur intentionally or deliberately.
Observer bias occurs when the observer uses his or her own subjective view or disposition to interpret
happenings in the setting he or she observes. This may the case when the observer is already a member of the
group he wishes to observe ( an employee in an organisation) and therefore fails to interpret the setting
objectively. When using covert observation (when the purpose of research is not known to the informants) it
is difficult to check with the informants whether your interpretations were valid. Using overt (informants are
aware of the purpose of the research) observation enables the researcher to ask the informants to read some
of the secondary observation that relate to them. This is referred to as ‘informant verification’.
The observer effect happens when the presence of the observer affects the behaviour of those being
observed, which could lead to unreliable and invalid data. A solution to this is to act covertly or to achieve
minimal interaction (when the researcher melts in the background) . But informants may become familiar
with the researchers presence, minimizing the observer effect; this is termed ‘habituation’.
9.3 Structured observation
Unlike with participant observation, structured observation has a high level of predetermined structure. The
researcher is concerned with quantifying behaviour. Therefore it is usually used as only a part of data
collection because its purpose is to tell the researcher how often things happen rather than providing a
reason for why things happen.
When using this type of research method the researcher needs to determine whether he will use an
‘off-the-shelf ‘coding schedule (with this method you predetermined recording sheet) or designs his own.
Validity and reliability
There are a number of issues when using structured observation: observer error, informant error, time error
and observer effects.