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CNND Solutions

The document provides an overview of computer networking concepts, detailing the OSI model layers including Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application layers, along with their functions. It discusses addressing methods, particularly classful and classless addressing, and introduces the Go-Back-N protocol for data flow control. Additionally, it covers types of transmission media, distinguishing between guided (e.g., twisted pair, coaxial, optical fiber) and unguided media (e.g., radio waves, microwaves).

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5 views69 pages

CNND Solutions

The document provides an overview of computer networking concepts, detailing the OSI model layers including Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application layers, along with their functions. It discusses addressing methods, particularly classful and classless addressing, and introduces the Go-Back-N protocol for data flow control. Additionally, it covers types of transmission media, distinguishing between guided (e.g., twisted pair, coaxial, optical fiber) and unguided media (e.g., radio waves, microwaves).

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arshinalkar15
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MAHARASHTRA UNIVERSITY rads STUDENTS ASSOCIATION TION) (QUESTION BANK OF COMPUTER NETWORK & NETWORK DESIGN IER SESSION 2026 S.E SEM-IV SCHEME: NEP 2020 FOR BRANCH: IT Organization for Standardization (ISO). The O' specific functions and responsibilities. This la and technologies to work together. Ost ref 1odel is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the actual seen the The physical layer contains information in the form of le for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next yer will get the signal received and convert it into Os and 1s and send Physical Layer Cob>—— 0010100010 ————_~«{ Sending cabie Bastream Recenang cable Functions of the Physical Layer Layer 2: Data Link Layer (DLL) The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-nods of this layer is to make sure data transfer is erro layer 1 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh topology. Transmisslon Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flo} the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, hal ‘When a packet arrives in a network, it is tht using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is Data Link Layer devices. further divided into frame: L also encapsulates The packet received from the Network’ frame size of the BIC (Network Interface MAC address in snding on the nd Receiver's, The Receiver’s MAC P (Address Resolution Protocol) request that IP address?” an jestination host will reply with its MAC provides a way for a sender to transmit a In the header of each frame. fe must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted ontrol coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an I: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time. Layer 3: Network Layer The Network Layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the ather located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. 1 The sender and receiver's IP address are placed in the header by the network layer Segment in the Network layer Is referred to as Packet. 2 Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches Functions of the Network Layer 1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing network layer defines an ‘ader by the 2. Logical addressing: To identify each device inter-network unique addressing scheme. The sender and receiver's IP addresses are pl network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely Layer 4: Transport Layer The Transport Layer provides services to the applic layer. The data in the transport layer is referr delivery of the complete message. ment of the successful data Mammmission and 1. The transport layer also provides the ackni re-transmits the data if an error | pper layers, proper data fds the segmented data r by default or manually ber from its header and forwards the + Connection-Oriented Service + Connectionless Service “Layer 5: Session Layer ‘Session Layer in the OS! Model is responsible for the establishment of connections, management of Connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides authentication and security Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP. Functions of the Session Layer 1 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection. 2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in the data These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely, and data loss is avoided. 1. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start Jon with each other in half-duplex or full duplex Layer 6: Presentation Layer The data from The Presentation Layer is also called the Translation | extracted here and manipulated as per the requ used in the Presentation Layer are TLS/SSL (Tr, MPEG, GIF, are standards or formats used for| layer's role Layer Security / Secure Jing data, which is part of th intation Functions of the Presentation Lay 1, Translation: For example, ASCII to lates the data into another/f@mp or code. The 2. Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryptit encrypted data is fed on the network. find the Application Layer which is 's produce the data to be transferred Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host. 2. File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files from a remote computer 3. Mail Services: Provide email service. 4. Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for global Information about various objects and services. Ans: Classful Addressing. 1. Classful addressing was introduced in 1981, with classful routing, IPva addresses were divided into 5 classes(A to €), each with a predetermined range. 2. The class of an IP address determines the network portion and t! class-specific subnet mask. based on its 3. Classful addressing was inflexible and led to inefficiencies in address 4 the development of classless addressing (CIDR) + Classes A-C: unicast addresses + Class D: multicast addresses + Class E: reserved for future use _ Bye. Byte2 | Byles . Byted cos |e Class 6 Class © ciasso [- ICAST ADDRESS Class € RESERVED Class. A Inaclass Aad [Link] to 127. ‘always ‘0’. Thus, class A addresses range from 1111 in binary converts to 127 in decimal). The first 8 bits or the and the rest 24 bits or the 3 octets belong to the host Ina class B address, the first octet would always start with "10°. Thus, class 8 addresses range from [Link] to [Link]. The first 16 bits or the first two octets denote the network portion and the remaining 16 bits or two octets belong to the host portion. Its Subnet mask is [Link]. Example: [Link] Class C Ina class C address, the first octet would always start with ‘110° Thus, class C addresses range from 197 0.0.0 to 223 255 255 255. The first 24 bits or the first three actets denote the network portion ‘and the rest & bits or the remaining one octet belong to the host portion Its Subnet mask Is 785 255 2550 Exomple: 192 168 1.1 Class D \ctet would always start Subnet mask is Class D Is used for multicast addressing and in a class D address the with "110° Thus, class O addresses range from [Link] to 239.2: not defined. Exomple: [Link] Class D addresses are used by routing protocols like Class E lass € 255. Its, Jes and future use. The first ‘ange from [Link] to 255.2 Class E addresses are reserved for research p address starts with "111°. Thus, class € addre! Subnet mask is not defined. network network and + Class Cwith a addressing, which divides IP addresses into fixed classes (A, B, C, etc.), CIDR allows h subnet masks (VLSM). to smaller, more flexible subnets according to their specific needs, rather than being constrained by predefined class boundaries. CIDR Notation In CIDR subnet masks are denoted by /X. For example a subnet of [Link] would be denoted by /24. To work a subnet mask in CIDR, we have to first convert each octet into its respective binary value. For example, if the subnet is of [Link]. then —_—=— dh CC Oe First Octet 255 has B binary 1's when converted to binary Second Octet 255 hos 8 binary 1's when converted to binary ‘Third Octet 255 hos 8 binary 1's when converted to binary Fourth Octet hos 0 binary 1's when converted to binary Therefore, in total there are 24 binary 1's, so the suby ‘was the ARPANET in jotation across to Internet Protocol Versiol col and was Introduced for us« ‘Ans: IP stands for Internet Protocol, and IPv4 first widely deployed version of the Internet. 1983. An IPva address is a 32-bit nu; (for example, [Link]). IPv4 Is networks. zi ication over different types of networks, such as Ethernet ing to uniquely identify each device on a network ifferent ways, including manual (static) and automatic (dynamic) ion, depending on the network type. it (4-byte) addresses, {ddresses are possible in IPva. & IPvd addresses are written in dotted-decimal notation, consisting of four octets separated by dots (e.g., [Link]). 9. Traditionally, 1Pva addresses are divided into classes: A, B, C, 0, and E » + Classes A, B, and C are used for unicast addressin, + Class D addresses are reserved for multicasting. + Class E addresses are reserved for experimental purposes. ee ee 18 and differ in network and host bit lengths. Characteristics of IPv4 IPv4 could be a 32 Bil IP Address 1Pv4 could be a numeric address, and its bits are separated by a dot The number of header fields Is twelve and the length of the header field is twenty Ithas Unicast, broadcast, and multicast style of addresses \Pv4 supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet Mask) 1Pvd uses the Post Address Resolution Protocol to map to the M RIP may be a routing protocol supported by the routed daemon Networks ought to be designed either manually or with DHCP. Packet fragmentation permits from routers and IPv4 Datagram Header VERSION: Version of the IP protocol (4 bits HLEN: IP header length (4 bits), which Is the value for this field is 5 and the Type of service: Low Delay, Hig! ‘maximum is 65,535 bytes. Identification: Ur (16 bits) 1. Go-Back-N (GBN) isa sliding window protocol used for data flow control and error control in computer networks, ensuring reliable transmission of frames 2. It allows multiple frames to be sent from sender to receiver at once, depending on the window + size, which improves transmission efficiency ee aaa | 3. The protocol uses a sender window of size N, which defines how many frames can be sent without waiting for acknowledgment 4. Wis widely used In data communication systems where efficient utilization of bandwidth Is required * 1 ‘Working of Go-Back-N Protocol 1. In Go-Back-N, the sender can transmit sever acknowledgment, which helps . 2. Pipelining Is allowed in this protoc acknowledgment for the previous fra 3, The receiver acc until the missing) | eceived Signal Advantages of Go-Back-N Protocol 1. Itallows multiple frames to be transmitted; compared to stop-and-walt protocols. 2. Pipelining reduces idle time of tl bandwidth. 3, The protocol is simpler to impleme! reordering. Disadvantages of to inefficiency and network congestion, especially in (0 retransmitted along with the lost Susceptibility to interference and noise + Cost and installation requirements Based on the nature of the transmission path, transmission media are broadly classified into two main types _Types of Transmission Media Gulded Media Unguided Media ‘Twisted Pair Cable Radiowaves: ‘Conxlal Cable Optical Fiber Cable Types of Tran: Guided Media: Guided Media also known as transmission media in which data signals are signal is confined and guided along a fixed rot network devices. 1. Uses physical cables to transml 2. Provides dedicated and well-defin 3. Major types of limited signal leakage. nding on the cable type used additional metallfc shielding. The twisting provides basic protection against interference, making UTP suitable for environments with moderate noise levels. \ yo \ oi Twisted Pair Piocord se Jachet Unshielded Twig Advantages: 1. Least expensive among guided transmis} 4, Widely used in Ethernet-based Disadvantages: 3. Mor ) Shiel insulated’ jetallic shielding layer, such as a foil or braided shi ‘against external electromagnetic interference fore stable and reliable data transmission. Sent rd te Shielded Twisted Poir Advantages + Provides better performance at higher data transmission rates compared to UTP. + Significantly reduces electromagnetic interference and crosstalk. + Ensures more reliable and stable communication, especially in noisy environments + Suitable for high-speed Ethernet networks and voice and data transmission systems, Disadvantages Higher cost compared to Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) More complex installation and termination due to shielding requirements Bulkier and less flexible, making cable management more difficult. 2) Coaxial Cable: Coaxial Cable consists of a central copper conductor surrounded by a dielectric ‘osulating layer, a metallic shielding layer, and an outer protective jacket. This structure allows signals to be transmitted with better protection against noise and i twisted pair cables. + Supports data transmission in both baseband mode (single chan} {multiple channels) + Provides higher bandwidth than twisted pair + Strong shielding makes it more resistant Crosstalk, and electrol | (emi + Commonly used in cable television (CA | systems. + More durable and reliable due ered con | + Easier to install and maintain comp) optical fiber cables, Protective | Plastic Layer Insulator Copper | Conductor | > Coaxial Cable idth than twisted pair cables. Disadvantages: + More expensive than twisted pair cables. + Requires proper grounding to ensure safety and minimize interference + Bulkier and less flexible due to multiple layers. + More vulnerable to security breaches, as the cable can be physically tapped. 3. Optical Fiber Cable: Optical Fiber Cable Is. a guided trangmission medium that transmits data in the form of light signals through a glass of plastic core using the principle af total internal reflection The core is surrounded by a cladding layer with a lower refractive Indew, which confines ight within the core and enables high speed, tong distance data transmission + Supports very large data volumes at extremely high speeds + Can operate in unidirectional or bidirectional communication modes + WOM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) allows multiple light signals to be transmitted simultaneously aver a single fiber + Widely used where high bandwidth, long distance, and low sign! Optical Fibre Cable Loose Butter Outer Jacket Fibre Core ‘Advantage: = Provides very Copy, imaging systems, and laser-based surgical procedures. ind Aerospace: Supports secure, high-speed, and interference-free communication ion: Widely used in internet backbone networks, undersea cables, and telecommiunication systems. + Industrial and Automotive: Used for sensing, lighting, data communication, and safety | systems. Unguided Media: Unguided media, also known as wireless or Unbounded transmission media , uses electromagnetic waves to transmit data without any physical medium. Signals propagate {hrough free space such as air or vacuum. The main types of unguided media are radio waves, microwaves, and infrared waves. 2 ——s—‘_O_—s Features + Signals propagate through air or free space + Less secure due to broadcast nature + Suitable for long-distance communication 1) Radio Waves: Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic wave that can easily be generated and can propagate through buildings and other obstacles. They do not require line-of-sight between transmitting and receiving antennas, making them highly suitable fg cast communication and wireless data transmission. Frequency Range 3 kHz ~ 300 GHe Applications: ‘AM and FM radio broadcasting, television tran: communication. dless phones, ang ‘Types of Radio Waves: + Shortwave: AM radio broadc, + VHF (Very High Frequency): F + UHE (Ultra High Frequency): Televi mobile communication ‘Components: + Transmitter: +s and modulates the s] + Recelyer: Receives 1odulates the signal naan os UY) Rodiowoves aves: Micro are a form of unguided transmission media that use line-of-sight . where the transmitting and receiving antennas must be properly aligned, The fe depends on the height of the antennas. Microwaves operate in the frequency range of 1G }00 GHz and are widely used in mobile communication, satellite links, and television distribution. Advantages: + Cost-effective compared to laying physical cables ‘+ No need for land acquisition Surtable for communication over difficult terrains and oceans (ammenities + Supports high data transmission rates Disadvantages: + Less secure without proper encryption + Susceptible 10 weather conditions such as rain and fog + Affected by obstacles due to line-of-sight requirement High cost of antenna design, installation, and maintenance Microwave Transmission loperate in the hich limits their "5 are commonly Infrared Radiations Infrored Waves rk access method used in computer networks where multiple devices share a wunication channel and transmit data without interfering with each other 2. Before transmitting data, a device senses the channel to check whether itis idle or busy, which helps in reducing the chances of collision. 3. If the channel is found to be busy, the device waits until it becomes idle, ensuring that no two devices transmit simultaneously. .cy by allowing devices to share the same medium while 4. CSMA Improves network efficien minimiting data collisions 5 Its widely used in networking technologies such as Ethernet and WI-FI for managing access {0 the communication channel Types of CSMA Protocols 1. 1-Persistent COMA. asmits immediately 1) In 1-persistent CSMA, the device continuously senses the chant when the channel becomes idle. {i) Its an aggressive approach, as it does not walt after the channel ba the probability of collisions. in) if the channel is busy, the device keeps checking without delay. 2. Non-Persistent COMA, |) In non-persistent CSMA, the device checks amount of time before sensing more devices transmit data simultaneously. 2. Itallows devices to detect collisions during transmission and take corrective action immediately to avoid data loss. 3. improves network reliability by ensuring that corrupted frames are retransmitted properly. Collision Handling in CSMA/CD ot Step 1 Check readiness The sender first checks whether itis ready to transmit data and prepares the frame for transmission It ensures that the device has data to send before accessing the communication channet Step 2: Sense the channel The sender continuously senses the transmission medium to check whether it is idle or busy If the channet Is busy, the device waits, if it Is idle, it proceeds to transmit Step 3: Transmit and detect collision The sender starts transmitting data while simultaneously monitoring signals. If a collision is detected, the transmission is immediately stoppet corruption Step 4: Send Jam signal fa collision ignal to inform all other de. 1e corrupted frame and prepat After detecting a collision, the device sends a thas occurred. This ensures that all nodes disc. retransmission. Step 5: Backoff and retransmiss fore attempting retransmissi ich reduces the nder again senses the ch: The sender waits for a random backoff chance of repeated collisions. After waitin fntains a fixed number of sequence numbers (here 0 to 3), and once a packet is, acknowledged, ts position becomes free. This shifting of window is called “sliding window” 5. As shown in the diagram, after receiving ACK-0, sequence number 0 is reused. This reduces the number of bits required for sequence numbers and keeps header size small 6. The protocol ensures reliable and ordered delivery because packets are acknowledged and retransmitted if lost. It allows multiple frames to be in transit at the same time, nnn Sender Reclever ie Ei Recelving Ack of Packet -0 0» Seq. Number 0 used again -> 2 bits are required to represent eq. no's with window size 4. Working. 1 The sender maintains a window of fram} acknowledgment. All frames inside the yw are transmitted one after a} nt, which reduces overhead and iver by limiting the number of jetwork efficiency because multiple packets are transmitted simultaneously. This fe time of communication channel. 2. It provides reliable communication through acknowledgment and retransmission mechanisms. This ensures correct delivery of data. 3. It reduces overhead by reusing sequence numbers and minimizing waiting time. This improves performance. 4 It cupports high speed data transfer and is widely used in TCP This makes it suitable for modern networks Disadvantages 1 itis more complex than simple protocols like Stop-and-Wait because it reauires window management This increases implementation complexity 2 requires buffer memory at both sender and receiver to store multiple frames This increases resource usage 3 Incase of packet loss, retransmission may cause delay and adi sad This can affect performance 4 If window size Is not chosen properly, it may lead to inefficiency o! is required Ing the ors, so they ere each router keeps 3 ta larly share these tables with ‘Ans: Distance Vector Routing (DVR) is a proto} distance (in hops) to all other routers. Router can update routes and always find f The Distance Vector Routing Algor! used in the old ARPANET. shortest known distance to every + When a router receives a neighbor's table, it saves it. «If new information changes the shortest path, the router updates its own table = Updates also occur if a link goes down. De(y) = min (C(x.v) + De} SS 3 Distance calculation The cost of reaching a destination is calculated using the Bellman-Ford equation where + Duly) = cost from router x to destination y + Clxv) = cost from router x to neighbor v + Duly)= cost from neighbor v to destination y Example: Consider 3-routers X, Y and Z as shown in figure. Each rot Every routing table will contain distance to the destination nodes. 1 | 1 |_| Ao wees will share it routing table lated using bellmen- ford equation. Ox(y) = Similarly for Z also: Finally the routing table for all: i 1. Slow Convergence: Takes time to adapt to changes. 2. Count-to-infinity Problem: Can keep increasing hop counts endlessly in some failure cases 3. More Traffic: Routers share updates periodically, even if nothing changes, which wastes bandwidth. Scalability Issues: Large net WAN links, TEP Congestion Control Mechanism Network to avoid congestion and packet loss Performance. ‘The mechanism is based on the idea network than it can handle. TCP monitors network conditions continu ‘This adaptive behavior helps prevent co 1) Congestion Window (cwnd) 1. Congestion window (cwnd) i Packets in teansit and receiver capability trol and congestion control ©” network conditions bike ACK increases, allowing more data Ses to reduce network load. jeases by one segment per round trip time (RTT). This slow ible network bandwidth. ase, TCP reduces the congestion window drastically when congestion is aggressively. This prevents continuous congestion and allows fair sharing of bandwidth among multiple connections. 5. It produces a sawtooth pattern of window size over time. TTT 3) Slow Start 1 Slow start is used at the beginning of a tion or after a timeout to In} transmission It starts with a small congest| 4) Congestion Avoidance 1. Congestion avoidance phase begins after slow start when cwnd reaches the threshold value. {In this phase, the congestion window grows linearly instead of exponentially. This helps avoid sudden congestion in the network. 2 TCP increases cwnd by 4 small amount for each ACK received during this phase This results in approvimately one segment iaceease per AIT Such gradual growth ensures careful utilization of avaliable bandwidth 4 packet toss is detected during congestion avoidance, TCP reduces cwnd using multiplicative decrease It also updates the threshold value accordingly This maintains balance between Pfictency and congestion control 5) Fast Retransmit 1. Fast retransmit is used to detect packet loss without waiting It relies on duplicate acknowledgments sent by the receiver. 1 detecting ost packets, 2 When the sender receives three duplicate ACKs, It assumes that 2 Itimmediately retransmits the missing pack averall network performance and throug] 3. This mechanism works effectively when| detection of loss and avolds long Idle pel communication. iple packets are in transit. It 6) Fast Recovery 1, Fast recovery Is used after fast retr Instead of resetting cwnd to one, It re 10 avoid returning to slow st. to half. This allows fast ase very from packet 1e reduced window size Jork. This avoids unnecessary delays in I congestion avoidance fs smooth transition and stable Receiver | Lack ACK 2 ACK 2 | ACK 2 ACK 2 Retransmit packet 3 ACK 6 TCP Timers 1 TCP uses timers to control data transmission and avoid unnecessary delays In communication These timers ensure reliability by handling packet loss, connection management, and synchronization They play an important role in maintaining efficient data transfer Retransmission Timer is used to retransmit lost segments when acknowledgment is not received within a specific time. It is based on Retransmission Tigagaut (RTO), which is calculated using Round Trip Time (RTT). This ensures reliable RTT is calculated In three forms: Measured RTT, Smoothed RTT, Smoothed ATT is used to reduce fluctuations in measured values. Deviation timeout more accurately. Persistent Timer is used to avoid deadlock It sends probe segments to check if rece ‘communication does not stop permane: ready to accept data. Thi Keep Alive Timer is used to check whethi received for a long time, TCP, terminated. jhe conne termination to ensure dela} n closed for a specific y jackets do not his prevents ‘Time-Wait Timer is used during col affect new connections. It keeps the ¢: confusion du plicate packets. estion WAP Ensuring proper delivery ing connections efficiently ‘UDP (User Datagram Protocol) Connectiontess protocol because it sends data without establishing connection J Unreliable because it does not | guarantee delivery of packets Does not maintain order because packets are sent independently der because packets are jing sequence numbers No proper error control because it does not check or correct errors Provides error detection and correction because it retransmits lost packets ‘Error |Speed ‘Slower because of connection setup and | Faster because no connection setup | acknowledgment process | or acknowledgment is required Overhead High overhead because extra headers | Low overhead because minimal and control mechanisms are used header information is used Flow Control | Uses flow control because sender |No flow control because data is sent adjusts speed based on receiver | without checking receiver capacity eee Congestion _Uses congestion control because it | Nocongestion control because | Control monitors network traffic | does not monitor network conditions [sends data in independ | Deta Sends data as a continuous stream | Sends data In independent packets | Transmission because connection is established | because no connection exists Used in real-time applications like | streaming, gaming, VoIP ler (B bytes) because It Use Cases Used in applications requiring accuracy like web browsing, email file transfer Header Size | Larger header (20-60 bytes) because it includes control information Examples | HTTP, FTP, SMTP because they require | reliable communication : Repeater 1. A repeater is a physical layer device use ina network. It helps in extending the distant als, not on iple functionality. However, it provides known as a multi-port repeater. ne port and broadcasts it to all other ports. It does not know the Jeads to unnecessary traffic. 15 not use MAC addresses or perform filtering. It blindly forwards data to all devices. This reduces efficiency and security. ollisions because all devices share the same bandwidth. This reduces network performance. It is not suitable for large networks. 5. Hub is considered an obsolete device and is replaced by switches. Switches provide better performance and security Bridge 1. A bridge is a data link layer device used to connect two LAN segments. It makes them appear 85 a single network. It improves network performance te fnars traffic using MAC addresses and forwards only required data This reduces unnecessary traffic It improves efficiency 3 Bridge divides a network into smafler segments to reduce collisions, Each segment operates Independently This enhances performance 1 th maintains a MAC address table to identify devices. This helps in making forwarding decisions. It is smarter than hub jodern networks prefer 5. Bridge Is slower compared to switches because it has fewer pow switches over bridges. 6 Iworks only within the same type of network. It cannot conne’ protocols. 7. Bridges are rarely used today because switches ‘Switch 1 A switch is a data link layer device used of a bridge It provides high-speed coms 2. uses MAC addresses to for traffic. It improves efficiency. formats afd protocols 4 Its used to connect LAN to internet or different types of networks. For example, connecting TCP/IP network to another system Gateway can also provide security features like filtering and monitoring traffic. It acts as a control point 6 It 1s more complex and expensive compared to other devices It performs multiple functions beyond simple routing 7 Gateway Is essential for communication between heterogeneous networks Without It, different systems cannot interact Ans: Link State Routing Protocol mplete Information 1. Link State Routing Is a routing technique in which each router, about the network topology. Instead of knowing only neighbd ‘map of the network. This helps in making accurate and efficient routing decisions. 2. Routers exchange information about their direc Advertisements (LSAs). These LSAs are fl network view. This ensures consistency fability in routing, 3. After collecting all information, each roulimmises Dijkstra’s algorithm to cof shortest paths It calculates the best path to, formation of a shortest path t Key Features In the network his reduces inly when changes occur. Routers ire or change. This minimizes routing ince each router has full topology his makes it reliable for complex network shortest path tree from itself to all destinations. Finally, routing tables are created using this tree. Unk State Routing Algorithm (Dilkstra’s Algorithm) 1. Initially, the shortest path tree set (sptSet) is empty and distances are set as: {0, 22, 20, 09, 09, 09, 08, 02} where se represents infinity. The source node is assigned distance 0 and others are unknown, es | 2. Step 1: Choose the vertex with minimum distance (vertex 0) ani Update distances of adjacent vertices such as vertex 1 = 4 and ve Now distances become {0, 4, 2°, 2°, °°, °°, °°, 8) —_ 3, Step 2: Select Update adjacent vi Cor dating sh 8 .. update distances of its neighbors. istances become finite for vertex 6 = 15 and vertex 8 = 9. A x 7 to sptSet and continue the process. 5 Step 4 Select vertex 6 and update distances of adjacent vertice: Distances of vertex $ and 8 are updated accordingly Add vertex 6 to sptSet and repeat the process. n minimum distance is unt! ced. .d to sptSet forming t! test path tree. 6. Step 5: Continut Finallyeall vertices Thy accurate routing because each router has complete network information. This Lit .ces of routing loops and incorrect paths. Hence, it ensures reliable redu communication 2. It offers fast convergence compared to other routing protocols. 3. Updates are triggered only when changes occur in the network. This improves network responsiveness. 4 It supports large and complex networks efficiently. works 6 pur to DHCP uses UDP to dynamically assign IP addresses fo devices, where small control messages are exchanged mmmunication, as it tolerates some packet loss but not 3 VoIP uses UDP for real-time voice cor delays 4. RIP uses UDP to send periodic routing updates between rout 5. NTP uses UDP to synchronize system clocks across networks wit of dey ‘Ans: Network topology is the arrangement network It shows how computers, servers, any between them. Choosing the right topology i rellability, and security of the network. There nce, Cost, logies. Logical 1 token passing in cted t er device via a particular .d channels. These channels are known ols; it focuses on direct device-to vw Mesh Advantages ‘Communication is very fast between the nodes. + Mesh Topology is robust The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices through dedicated channels or links. EEE el + Provides security and privacy Disadvantages Installation and configuration are difficult ing is required, hence suitable for less number of devices + The cost of cables Is high as bulk wir + The cost of maintenance is high Note: A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, providers ore connected to each other via dedicated channels. This communication systems and aircraft navigation systems. ere various internet service also used in military Star Topology: In Star Topology. all the devices are connected to a sin hub Is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central passive in nature Le, not an intelligent hub such a: sting devices, can be intelligent known as an active hub. Acti Note: Here, Ethernet LAN ete. Star topology Is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable. Disadvantages «Ifthe concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crast down, + The cost of installation is high. ne pertormance is based on the single concentrator 1.¢ hub Note Acommon cxomple of star topotoay 15 0 local area network ( computers ore connected to 0 central hub. This topology is olso used devices are connected to 0 wireless access point (LAN) in an office where oll in wireless networks where all aus Topology aus Topology Is a network type in which every compu single cable Ws bi-directional It's a multl-point connection and a 9 the backbone fails the topology crashes. !Bus-topotogy Ethernet us protocol TOMA, CDMA, Pure ALOHA, and Slotted ALOHA were neve! ter and network device is connected to a bust topology because if MA/CD MAC Backbone coaxial cables Terminator Advantages + IN devices are col ff ., and N drop lines are required ed networks that support up to 10 ly MAC meld used in traditional bus Ethernet. Modern switched CSMA/CD because full-duplex operation eliminates collisions. Is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc. ‘Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks, + Security is very low. Note: A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected t0 0 single cooxial cable or twisted poir cable. This topology !s also used in cable television networks. 1491684 eg reserve This material the excl rip of MES, nathan ibn hing Topology: In a Ring Topolopy. it forms a cing connecting devices with exactly (wo neighboring devices A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last nade in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th nade Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network Note: Here, data flows in one airectic between each Network Node, it is calle Operations + One station is ‘operations. ‘Tree TopologyaPree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration) are used. Here, various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the repeater | This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the + devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. 0 Aig see T materi tect pe of MESS Unauthorised aetna, tris a mnulti point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone falls the tanology crashes, Advantages distance Itallows more devices to be attached to! that Is traveled by the signal t + Itallows the network to get + We can add new devices to the ex Disadvantages + Ifthe central nen the nodes are free to take any form. It means these ology or can be a combination of various types of Hybrid Topology Advontages This topology Is very flexibte | the size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices Disadvantoges ure of the Hybrid Network 11s challenging to design the architect! | Hubs used In this topology are very expensive The Infrastructure cost Is wery high as.a hybrid network requ bling and network devices ‘ans: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is a core In protocol that da ‘exchanged between clients and servers on the Enables communication between web b@llmers and web servers Forms the foundation of data transfer ORR Worid Wide Wet + Defines rules for requesting agi@gelivering HTTP Connection <= Request Client « Response Server Connection Termin: ‘at enables clients and servers to pendent and the server doesn't retain previous interactions’ ext, making them readable and debuggable Follows a client-server architecture for requesting and serving rates on a request-response cycle between clients and servers I: Supports various methods lke GET, POST, PUT, DELETE for different Methods of HTTP HTTP methods define the type of action a client wants to perform on a resource hosted by a sever «GET: Retrieves data without modifying the resource. «POST: Submits data for processing or resource creation. ‘reates or replaces a resource completely. PATCH Partially updates a resource DELETE: Removes a resource from the server HEAD: Retrieves response headers only ported methods and communication options «OPTIONS: Returns suPI ecurity risks) + for debugging (rarely used due to 5 ypically for HTTPS via proxies TRACE: Echoes the request CONNECT: Establishes a tunnel. t HTTP Request/Response: HTTP follows a request-response made! where each client jon flow. response, following a defined communicati request is 3 | Client sends request: Sends an HTTP request 44 | Server processes request: Handles the eaders, and optional data t Server sends response: Returns status ¢ the received, HTTP Request Client (Browser) HTTP Response fad by routers to determine the best path for data it helps routers exchange information about network topology. This ery between source and destination. at the Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model. They maintain nies that store paths to different networks. These tables are undated dynamically 5 such as hop count, delay, bandwidth, and cost to select the best route, The t metric is considered optimal. This improves network efficiency stance Vector, Link State, and Path Vector protocols, Each late routes. This allows flexibility in network design wutomatically updates routes when network changes 3. They use path with the lowest 4. Routing protocols are classified into Di type uses a different method to calcul 5, They provide dynamic routing, which a occur, This avoids manual configuration and reduces errors. It improves reliability 6. Routing protocols also help in avoiding routing loops and congestion. Techniques like split horizon and route poisoning are used. This ensures stable communication de RIP, OSPF, and BGP Fach protocol Is used based on Examples of routing protocols incl al for internet and enterprise networks network sire and requirements They are essenti RIP (Routing Information Protocol) ) is designed to help routers determine the best path for The Routing Information Protoco! {RIP) cending data packets across a network It uses hop count as its outing metric and Is primarily used in small to medium sired networks due to its scalability limitations. fer 3) of the OSI model aggagpaintains routing tables on + RIP operates at the Network Layer (Lave each router Every 30 seconds, routers exchange thelr complete routing tab/é periodic updates. The hop count metric defines the number of routers a packet must P destination jop count Note: RIP supports a maximum hop count of ich limits its use in forger m of 16 1s considered unreachable. Hop Count Hop count is a routing metric that xchange routing information with neighboring routers: .'s broadcast or multicast their entire routing table. rer path, It updates its routing table accordingly. is not updated within 180 seconds, it is marked as invalid. + Ifthe rOuipPemains unused for 240 seconds, it is removed (flushed) from the routing table ‘These timers help maintain accurate routing information and prevent stale routes. ‘Ans: ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) maps an IPva address to the corresponding MAC address ‘ona local network so frames can be delivered to the correct device. + Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses for local communication Works only within the same broadcast domain (LAN) « Oprates directly over link fayer technologies such as Ethernet Iesential for delivering frames to the correct device Important ARP Terms ‘ARP Coche A temporary storage table maintained by a device Stores recently resolved IP-to-MAC address mappings Reduces network overhead by avoiding repeated ARP requests ‘ARP Cache Timeout the ARP cache The time duration for which an entry remain: ‘the use of outdated «After expiration, the entry Is removed to, ARP Request + Abroadcast message sent to all devices i + Asks: "Who has this IP addr = Used when the MAC address for ARP Reply (ARP Response) + Aunicast mes + Contains the corr = All sender to How ARI The workit : cea ee z q Request gh Gams sare BLARP replyis vunieast ARP Protocol ‘ARP Cache Lookup «The sender first checks its ARP cache for an existing entry corresponding to the destination IP address. if a valid entry Is found, the MAC address is used immediately and data transmission begins. ARP Request Broadcast Iino cache entry exists, the sender generates an ARP request This request Is broadcast to all devices on the local network Request Processing by Hosts Every device on the LAN receives the ARP request. Each device compares the requested IP address with its own IP ARP Reply Transmission «The device whose IP address matches the request sends an ARP «The reply Is sent as a unicast message and contains the device's ARP Cache Update + Upon receiving the reply, the sender storg «This cached entry Is used for future cor ication until it expires. ARP Message Format ‘An ARP message consists of seve My. Hardware Type Protocol Type Hardware length Protocol length | Operation Request 1. Reply 2 ‘Sender hardware address (For example, 6 bytes for Ethernet) Sender protocol address (For example, 4 bytes for !P) Target hardware address (For example, 6 bytes for Ethernet) (it is not filled in a request) Target protocol address (For example, 4 bytes for IP) fessage format of ARP — 2 bytes, hardware used at the data link layer. Hardware Address Length (HLEN) ~ 1 byte + Indicates the length of the hardware (MAC) address. = For Ethernet MAC addresses, the length is 6 bytes. Protocol Address Length (PLEN) ~ 1 byte + Indicates the length of the protocol (IP) address el + For IPva addresses. the length is 4 bytes. Operation Code (OPER) - 2 bytes + Defines the type of ARP operation Value 2 represents an ARP request, and value 2 represents an ARP reply Sender Hordware Address (SHA) Contains the MAC address of the device sending the ARP messa Sender Protocol Address (SPA) = Contains the 1P address of the device sending the ARP message ‘Target Hardware Address (THA) «Contains the MAC address of the target devi + This field Is unknown (set to zeros) in an Target Protocol Address (TPA) + Contains the IP address of the target devi : Class B IP Addressing (Networks anc Is 32 bits in whic Ince between number medium to large networks, ies the class. Therefore, out of 16 tification. This affects the number of addresses is from [Link] to [Link]. This range is 1 first octet. It is widely used in organizations and universities. + the host 10, Ina subnet mask: + Binary 1s represent the network portion of the IP address. + Binary 0s represent the host portion. The subnet mask helps a device determine whether another device 1s on the same local network or ona different network, which in turn decides whether communication is direct or must go through arouter For exemple: ieee sven ene 255.255.2550 [Link]..anaanaa ‘The subnet mask determines the network and the host portions Role Inet Mosk ‘Subnet masks help divide a large network int ler logical networks called su which improves network efficiency, secur enabling better network management Function of Subnet Mask jel. Physical layer, Data Link 1e services such as establishment of a session between ged by Session Layer which particularly behaves as a dialog .m thus facilitating interaction between them which prevents collisions which might occur while performing these operations which would otherwise result in a loss. 3. Synchronization: Checkpoints are the midway marks that are added after a particular interval during stream of data transfer. These points are also referred to as synchronization points. The Session layer + permits process to add these checkpoints. For example, suppose a file of 400 pages is being sent over a network, then itis highly eee OO beneficial to set up a checkpoint after every 50 pages so that next SO pages are sent only when previous pages are received and acknowledged Design Issues with Session Layer: 1. Establish sessions between machines: The establishment of session between machines is an important service provided by session layer This session is responsible for creating a dialog between connected machines The Session Layer provides mechanism for opening. closing and managing a session between end- user application processes, Le. a semi-permanent dialogue. g consists of requests and responses that occur between applications. 2 Enhanced Services: Certain services such as checkpoints and management of tokens a session layer and thus it becomes necessary t layer's design 3. To help in Token management and S The session layer plays an important rol well as ensuring better data tr specific intervals. Thus it be services. 1e computer hardware address, zt mnunication segment to establish col 3 55 is used by the Media Access 4 f network devices exist and we need to s. group of 6 hexadecimal numbers, each group consisting of called a 6-byte hexadecimal number. octet a Types of MAC Address Parar Definition MAC (Media Access Controf Unicast MAC Address: Unicast MAC Address is an example of a transfer of data on the same network from a single system to another single system This takes place on a special NIC through a local network If the least significant bit of the 1st octet is 0, itis identified as a MAC Address Multicast MAC Address: Multicast MAC Address, as the name suggests is when data Is. transferred from multiple devices to multiple devices on the sa MAC Address, here the source is also multiple and so is the rey of the 1st octet Is 1, itis Identified as a Multicast MAC Addres: network. Unlike unicast e least significant bit Broadcast MAC Address: In Broadcast MAC Address, all devices, to their host systems. This takes place on LAN It is represented 6 digits equal to 1. For eg. [Link]. panel Ball hexae meter | MAC Address network It is a logical metwork and can | 2 at Network Layer because itis used | Jmmunication across different | orks | It identifies the network connection of a device because routers use IP addressto | route data globally. itten in| itis either 32-bit (IPva) or 128-bit (IPv6) | because it is written in decimal or hexadecimal format (e.g., [Link]) | y NIC manufacturer _| Assigned by ISP or network administrator because each device must have a_ | because devices need different addresses | globally unique hardware identity. | in different networks. | Cannot be easily changed because | Can be changed because it depends on it is hard-coded into the hardware. | network configuration and environment, | Used in local network (LAN) Used in global network (Internet) because 1 because it does not work beyond _| it enables communication across networks. | the local segment. represents physical identity of | Represents tonica! Identity/location | | Adaress Type device because it Is Wed to because it Indicates where the device Is In hardware | the network | security proce secure because it snot {Less secure hecause iran be tracked of | easily visible or changeable by changed by thied parties | external users. | | Examples | exammale 00 14 28 3C. 40 SE Example 192.68 1 1 because It follows | because It follows hexadecimal dotted dec! \ | format I | Usage in Used by switches because they Used by route: g data | Communication | forward data within the same between differe network using MAC addresses pn to access the channel. At any given time, oF coordination Is achieved using one + Reservation + Polling + Token Passing stations send data in order elolfle 12345 Reservation Frame > Reservation Example: If theFe ore M stations, the reservation intervol is divided into M slots. Each station signals intent by inserting a bit into its slot. Then, only the reserved stations transmit in the dota phase. ‘Advantages + Predictable access time and throughput. + Priorities can be set for faster access. tions like real-time audio/video. + Supports QoS (Quality of Service) for appli Ag eee TH Mi ce per of LS Chard ate + Efficient bandwidth utilization Disadvantages + Performance decreases under light loads (wasted stots) + High dependency on controlled synchronization Polling In sequence, granting lon. The addressed Here, a controller (primary station) polls each node (secondary statlo permission to send. The controller sends a message with the addre} station responds + Sends data (if available) Polling + Seni reject) if no nding Secondary a8 Primary Polling Advantages + Predictable access times and bandwidth. High efficiency, since no slot is wasted. + Priorities can be assigned. Disadvantages + Letra overhead due to polling messages + High dependence on controtler reliability Turnaround time increases under light loads, Token Passing In Token Passing, stations are logically connected (ring or bus} A special frame called a token circulates among stations The token represents permission to transmit. + Astation can send data only when it holds the token + no data is ready, the token is simply passed opm ( foken passes around the ring from station to qo Token Passing passed i topology. use a bus medium but pass the token in a predefined logical order. Disadvantages + Expensive setup and hardware. + Token management issues (lost/duplicate tokens, station failures). + Complex implementation. Q 24) Differentiate between the following Ans: Characteristics Signal transmission Consists of Installation and Implementation External magnetic 4 “Noise immunity | Twisted pair cable | Takes place in the the metallic high attenuation rate. Cost Twisted pair cable supports a low data electrical form over conducting wires. Pair of insulated copper wires Twisted pair cable has | low noise immunity. The cost is very low. Co-axial cable “Takes place inthe electrical form over inner conductor of tha cable. tror outer Relatively difficult fiber cable. [Co-axial cable has moderately high bandwidth, attenuation. | rate. noise immunity. Cost is moderate Requires 4 components id conductor wire | ° Layer of insulation "Fairly easy installation. in coaxial cable has low “TModerately high data | — cs Optical fiber cable | Takes place in an ical form over glass sing id is not affected. ~~" power loss due to absorption, scattering, and bending. (Small ‘diameter 2 | ~T Optical fiber cable has a very high bandwidth "Difficult to install. “in optical fiber cable has very low _ attenuation. | ‘Very high data rate. | ‘Co-axial cable has higher Optical fiber cable has the highest noise | immunity. mane] Repeater Spacing | Repeater spacing is 2 Repeater spacing Is 1:10 | Repeater spacing is 10 | 10km km 100 km | Securlty Security 1s not Security is not guaranteed | Security Is guaranteed guaranteed ofthe | of the transmitted signal of the transmitted transmitted signal L | signal | ll Power loss Reasons-conduction Reasons: absorption, and radiation scattering dispersion a bending 1 Jie ae: | Parameter Lossy Compression Definition | Lossy compression remove| Lossless compress! original data becaus cannot easily detect slight color or sound | ne original file can be fully restored jecause no data is lost during ‘compression. | ‘Quality remains exactly the same because all original information is | preserved. | Tigh compression (very small] Provides lower compression (larger | cause unnecessary data is _| file size compared to lossy) because all | gressively. data must be retained. | ‘ees algorithms Ike Transform Coding, | Uses algorithms ike Run-Length | Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT), Encoding (RLE), Lempel-Ziv-welch | Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), (L2W), Huffman Coding, Arithmetic Fractal Compression because these Encoding because these methods | methods approximate data instead of | encode data efficiently without losing | storing exact values. any information. ‘Applications | Used in images, audio, and video (e.g., | Usedin text, documents, and some JPEG, MP3, MP4) because slight quality | images (e.g., PNG, ZIP files) because exact data recovery is required. toss is acceptable to reduce storage and bandwidth pate Copechy Stores more data in less space becouse | Stores less data in the same space in gactifices some information for because it preserves all information higher compresvion efficiency “limiting comoression efficiency “Nature irreversible compression because lost | Reversible compression because =| original data can always be data cannot be recovered once tly removed "No connection is e: transmission becaus handshake) because i sare ready and para jarantee of delivery or transmission. 15 not maintain order because packets travel independently through different routes. No proper error control because it does not verify or correct errors. flow control because sender | No flow control because data is sent jeed based on receiver without considering receiver capacity | capacity. Implements congestion control because network conditions are monitored and transmission rate is network load. | No congestion control because packets are sent without monitoring adjusted. Slower because time is required for Faster because data is sent | immediately without setup oF | connection setup and acknowledgments confirmation | Overhead | Packet Loss | Handing | sultabiuty = | |esametes ‘Data | Transmission F | Resource | Allocation LE Re SU ROO Resource Usage | Uses more resources because Uses fewer resources because each Communication | Stateful communication be High overhead because additional low overhead because no connection Information is needed for connection state or eatra control datas management and reliability maintained | memory and buffers are needed to packet is handled independently maintain connection state are ignored because g over reliability Ton pactets are retcansmitted ‘kent pack hecaute celebilty the prory | speed | Suitable for applications requiring Suitable | accuracy lke fle transter, email, and streaming [eo rowing connection state Is maintaj throughout transmission TCP because it ensures re exists Data is divided into packets and sent independently because no dedicated path is needed No setup required because packets are fixed path must routed dynamically through available (ed between sender and paths je fixed path throughout Uses multiple dynamic paths because ‘communication because the connection | each packet can take 3 different route | remains constant once established Data is transmitted continuously as 2 Data is transmitted in packets because stream because the path is already —_information Is broken into smaller reserved. units for routing {resources are reserved forthe entire | Resources ae allocated as needed duration because a dedicated channel is_ because no fixed reservation 1s done. required. | Fffictency. | unused when no data is sent Delay Initial delay is high due to setup because connection establishment | takes time |Renabiity | Highly reable once connection is, | |estabtsnea because path remains fixed | and uninterrupted [Congestion _| No congestion after setup because | Handling dedicated path avoids traffic issues. Flexibility Less flexible because path cani |changed during commusicay andwidth Inefficient usage because b ‘Usage reserved even if not used. Fallure Communication | andting | vecause no aterm Is Suitable for real-time ¢ Suitability — | Less efficient because resources remain More efficient because bandwidth Is used only when datais transmitted —_| | | Minimal initial delay because no connection setup is required | Less reliable because packets may be out of order lost or are) Can exp multiple p network resd Highly flexible B | rerouted dynamia 8 It is widely used in enterprise networks to organize departments. VLAN Configuration Example eee a Virtual Private Network - VPN Remote / roaming users privacy, secure browsing, and protecting sensitive information Control Channel ny Data Channel Client Server

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