Unit 1.1.

-LASER
Chapter 1
Laser

Introduction
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. To
understand lasing action, it is necessary to understand how light interacts with matter.

Light Matter Interaction

Absorption of light
When a photon of energy hυ is incident on a matter with energy levels having energy E1 and
E2, it will be absorbed if hυ = E2 - E1. The electron in the ground state (E1) undergoes a transition to
the higher energy level (E2). The photon thus gets absorbed.

Fig. Absorption of a photon with energy hυ = E2 - E1

Spontaneous emission
An electron in the higher energy level (E2) comes down to the ground state (E1) on its own
because E2 is an excited state & lifetime of E2 ~ 10-8 When the electron undergoes a downward
transition, it emits a photon with energy hυ = E2 - E1. This is known as spontaneous emission.

Fig. Spontaneous emission of a photon with energy hυ = E2 - E1

Stimulated emission
When a photon of energy hυ = E2 - E1 encounters a system in the excited state, i.e. electron in
the energy level E2, there is a small but non-zero probability that the incident photon will stimulate
the electron to make a downward transition and emit a photon which is identical to the incident photon
in all respects (energy, direction, polarization, phase, etc.). This is known as stimulated emission.
 Fig.
Stimulated emission of two identical photons with energy hυ = E2 - E1

Basics of laser
Stimulated emission is purely quantum mechanical phenomenon with no parallel in classical
[Link] is predicted by Einstein in [Link] took almost 50 years to use this phenomenon to build
the first Laser.

The main reason for this is the fact that the probability of stimulated emission is very low and the
probability that a photon with energy hυ = E2 - E1 will strike the atoms in excited states is again very
low because the life time of an unstable excited energy level is ~ 10-8 s.
The breakthrough came when materials were identified which had metastable energy levels, i.e., E 2
had life times ~ 10-3 s. This increases the probability of stimulated emission by 5 orders of
magnitude!!
Another stringent condition for lasing action to occur is that the population (N2) of the higher
energy level E2 should be higher than that (N1) of the lower energy level E1, i.e. N2> N1. This is known
as population inversion. The relation between N2 and N1 is given by Boltzmann distribution:
𝑁2 −(𝐸2 −𝐸1 )
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑁1

Example: 1. Find the ratio of population of the two states in a He-Ne laser that produces light of
wavelength 6328Å at 27 °C.
Solution:
Formula:
𝑁2 −(𝐸2 −𝐸1 )
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑁1

ℎ𝑐 12400
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜐 = = 𝑒𝑉
𝜆 𝜆(𝐴)

12400
= = 1.9595𝑒𝑉
6328

𝑁2 −(𝐸2 −𝐸1 ) −1.9595

= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒 0.2583 = 𝑒 −75.86 = 1.13 × 10−33
𝑁1

It is obvious that the probability for stimulated emission will be very less as the system is far
from population inversion. There are several mechanisms, also called pumping, to rapidly excite the
electrons in the higher energy state and obtain population inversion.
Table: Characteristic features and applications of commonly used lasers

S. Laser active Pumping Principal output Output Max. General

No medium mechanism wavelength (µm) power Applications
(W)
1 Ruby Optical pumping 0.6943 Pulsed 108 Drilling,
using flash lamp ophthalmology
2 Nd3+:YAG/ Optical pumping 1.06 Pulsed 109 Drilling,
Glass using flash lamp CW 103 welding, range
finding,
holography
3 Helium- Electric 0.6328 CW 10-1 Surveying,
Neon discharge 1.1152 10-3 metrology,
3.39 10-3 holography,
velocity
measurement
4 Argon Electric 0.458 CW 10 Ophthalmology,
discharge 0.515 holography
5 Carbon Electric 9.6-10.6 Pulsed 107 Cutting, welding
dioxide discharge
6 Nitrogen Electric 0.3371 CW 104 Pumping dye
discharge Pulsed 10-2 lasers
7 Dye Optical pumping 0.265-0.960 Pulsed 108 Spectroscopy,
using flash lamp pollution
detection
8 Gallium Forward current 0.85-0.90 Pulsed 10 Communication,
Arsenide CW 0.01 range finding,
pollution
detection
Meeting the three requirements
1. Population Inversion
• When the material is in thermal equilibrium condition, the population ratio is governed by
Boltzmann factor according to the following equation:
𝑵𝟐
= 𝑬−[𝑬𝟐 −𝑬𝟏 ]/𝒌𝑻
𝑵𝟏

• It means that the population N2 at the excited level E2 will be far smaller than the population
N1 at the level E1. For example, if we take typical values for E1 and E2, the population N1
would be 1030 times of N2. The condition in which there are more atoms in the lower energy
level and relatively lesser number of atoms in the higher energy level is called normal state
or equilibrium state.
• Thus under thermal equilibrium condition N1 >>N2.
• Population inversion is the condition of the material in which population of the upper energy
level N2 are exceeds the population of the lower energy level, N1 that is N2>>N1
 • In this condition the population distribution between the levels E1 and E2 is inverted and
hence it is known as he inverted state.

Normal State Inverted state

N1 >>N2 N2>>N1
2. Metastable states
• An atom can be excited to higher level by supplying energy to it.
• Excited atoms have short lifetime and release their energy in a matter of through
spontaneous emission.
• Atoms do not stay long enough at the excited state to be stimulated.
• As result, even though the pumping agent continuously raises the atoms to the exited level,
they undergo spontaneous transition and rapidly return to the lower energy level.
• Population inversion cannot be established under such circumstance.
• In order to establish the condition of population inversion, the excited atoms are required
to wait at the upper energy level till a large number of atoms accumulated at that level
• Atoms excited to a metastable state remain excited for an appreciable time, which is of
the order of 10-6 to 10-3 s.
• Therefore, the metastable state allows accumulation of a large number of excited atoms at
that level.
• There could be no population inversion and hence no laser action, if metastable states do
not exist.
3. Confining Radiation within the medium
• A high radiation density is required to be present in the active medium so that stimulated
emission dominates spontaneous emission. If laser medium is enclosed in between a pair
of optically plane parallel mirrors, photon density builds up to a very high value though
repeated reflections of photons which remain within the medium such an arrangement is
known as an optical resonant cavity or optical resonator.

Building blocks of a laser

 Fig. Block diagram of a laser

(i) Active medium

Active medium has the material which has the lasing energy levels E1 and E2, with E2 being
a metastable state, often (but not always) mixed with another component which could assist in
pumping of the system to achieve population inversion. For example, in He-Ne laser, Ne (10%
volume fraction), which has the lasing energy levels, is mixed with He (90%) which assists in
pumping.

(ii)Pumping Mechanism
An appropriate pumping mechanism achieves population inversion in the active [Link]
of the electrons in the excited level undergo a downward transition on their own and give rise to
spontaneous emission. These spontaneously emitted photons lead to stimulated emission and
consequently leading to a cascade of stimulated emissions. Since the original photons were emitted
in all directions, the stimulated emissions photons are also emitted in directions.

(iii) Optical cavity

An optical cavity is formed by two parallel mirrors containing the active medium. One of the
mirrors is perfectly reflecting and the other is partially reflecting. Only those photons which are
travelling perpendicular to the mirrors traverse the active medium repeatedly and produce their
replicas through stimulated emission. This makes the laser beam highly directional and has very less
divergence. Photons travelling in all other directions are eventually lost from the sides of the active
medium. The multiplication of select photons is called amplification (of stimulated emission). The
laser beam comes out of the mirror with partial reflectivity. Since all the photons have almost the
same original photon, they have the same initial phase and hence the laser has high degree of
coherence.
Apart from confining selected photons, the optical cavity also selects photons with
wavelength. In the above discussion, we have assumed that the energy levels E1 and E2 are infinitely
sharp. In reality, these levels have finite width and hence there is a spread in the energy of the emitted
photons. Hence the gain curve of the active material is as shown in Fig. The length of the optical
cavity, however, can be fine-tuned so that it accommodates integral multiple of half of the desired
2𝜇𝐿
wavelength 𝜆𝑚 = , where m is the mode number, L is the length of the cavity, μ is the refractive
𝑚
index of the medium. The laser beam therefore has much higher degree of monochromaticity than
normal sources.
Role of the Optical Resonator
• The primary function of optical resonator is to provide positive feedback of photon.
• The laser oscillation is initiate by photon spontaneously emitted by some of the excited atoms.
Each spontaneous photon can trigger many stimulated transitions along the path of its travel.
Optical cavity makes the laser beam directional
• In order to make stimulated emission dominate spontaneous emission, a high radiation density ρ
(υ) is require to be present in active medium. The optical cavity built up the photon density to a
very high value through repeated reflections of photons and confines them within the medium
• Optical cavity selects and amplifies only certain frequencies causing the laser output to be highly
monochromatic.

Lasing Action
Step 1: Pumping:
• The atom (active centres) in the medium are in the ground state initially. By supplying energy
from an external source, the atoms are excited from the ground level to an excited state.

Step 2: Population Inversion

• The lifetime of excited state extremely small (~10-8s), the atom drop spontaneously from the
excited state to the metastable state.
• As the lifetime of atoms at the metastable state is comparatively longer(10-3s), the atoms go on
accumulating at the metastable state.
• As soon as the number of the atom at the metastable state exceeds that of the ground state, the
medium goes into the state population inversion.

Step 3: Spontaneous emission

• Some of the excited atoms at the metastable state may emit photon spontaneously in various
direction.
• Each spontaneous photon can trigger many stimulated transitions along the direction of its
propagation.
• As the initial spontaneous photons are moving in different direction, many of such photons leave
the medium other than axial photon

Step 4: Amplification
• Many photons travelling along the axis causes stimulated emission and are reflected back on
reaching the end mirror.
• They travel towards the opposite mirror and on their way stimulate more and more atoms and
build up the photon strength.
• The photon travel once more through the medium generating more photons and more
amplification.
• The photons are then reflected again at the mirror and travel through the medium
• The mirror thus provides positive feedback of light in to the medium so that stimulated emission
acts are sustained, and the medium operates as an oscillator

Step 5: Oscillation
• At each reflection at the front-end mirror, light is partially transmission through it. The transmitted
component constitutes a loss of energy from the resonator.
• When the losses at the mirrors and within the medium balance the gain, a steady and stronger lase
beam will emerge from the front-end mirror.

Pumping Methods
In order to create the state of population inversion in an active medium, the atoms in the material
must be pumped (excited) to particular energy levels. The most common methods of pumping are
optical pumping and electrical pumping.
a) Optical pumping:
• Optical pumping uses photons to excite the atoms
• A light source such as a flash discharge tube is used to illuminate the laser medium and the photons
of the appropriate frequency excite the atom to an upper energy level.
• The pump photon must have higher frequency than the emitted photon
• This is because the atoms are to be excited to a level above the metastable level from the ground
level or a lower energy
• Optical pumping is suitable for any laser medium that I transparent to pump light. Optical
pumping is used in solid state lasers

b) Electrical pumping:
• Electrical pumping can be used only in case of laser materials that can conduct electricity without
destroying lasing activity.
• This method is limited to gases.

Principle Pumping scheme

Atoms in general are characterized by a large number of energy levels. Among them only
three or four levels will be pertinent to the pumping process. Two important pumping schemes are
widely employed. they are known as three0level and four-level pumping schemes
a) Three Level Pumping Scheme
• The three-level scheme first excites the atoms to an excited state higher in energy than the upper
laser state
• The atom than quickly decays down into the upper laser state. The atoms then quickly decay
down into the upper laser state.
• It is important for the pumped state to have a short lifetime for spontaneous emission compared
to the upper state. The upper laser state should have as long a lifetime as possible, so that the
atoms stay there long enough to b stimulated.
• A typical three level pumping scheme as shown in fig the state E1 is the ground state ; E3 is the
pump state and E2 is upper lasing levels, which is a metastable state
• When the medium is exposed to pump frequency radiation, a large number of atoms will be
excited to E3 level. However, they do not stay at that level but rapidly undergo downward
transition to the metastable state E2 through non-radiative transitions. The atom are trapped at
this state as spontaneous transition from E2 to the level E1 is forbidden.
• The pumping continues and after a short time there will be a larger accumulation of the atoms at
the level E2.
• When more than half of the two states E1 and E2 Now a chance photon can trigger stimulated
emission.

b) Four-level pumping scheme

• A typical four level pumping scheme is shown in fig. the state E1 is the ground state, E4 the
pumping level, E3 the metastable upper lasing level and E2 the lower lasing level. E2, E3 and E4
are the excited state.
• When light of pump frequency vp is incident on the lasing medium, the active centres are readily
excited from ground state to the pumping level E4 . the atom says at the E4 level for only about
10-8s, and quickly drop down to the metastable state E3.
• As spontaneous transitions from the level E3 to level E2 cannot take place, the atom get trapped
in the state E3. The population at the state E3 grows rapidly.
• The level E2 is well above the ground state such that (E2-E1)> kT. Therefore at normal
temperature atoms cannot jump to level E2 on the strength of thermal energy.
• As result, the E2 is virtually empty. Therefore population inversion is attained between the state
E3and E2. A chance photon of energy hυ=(E3-E2) emitted spontaneously can start a chain of
stimulated emission, bringing the atom to the lower laser level E2.
• From state E2, the atoms subsequently under go non-radiative transition to the ground state E1
and will be once again available for excitation, making it possible for light to be emitted
continuously.
• Four level laser operate in continuous wave (cw) mode
Types of laser
Semiconductor laser
• A semiconductor diode laser is specially fabricated p-n junction devices, which emits coherent
light when it is forward biased. R. N. Hall and his co-workers made the first semiconductor laser
in 1962.
• It is made from Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) which operates at low temperature and emitted light in
the near IR region. Now, p-n junction lasers are made to emit light almost anywhere in the
spectrum from UV to IR
• Diode laser are remarkably small in size (0.1 mm long) and having high efficiency of the order of
40%.
• Among the semiconductors, there are two different groups. Direct band gap semiconductors and
indirect semiconductors.
• Direct band gap semiconductor is the one in which a conduction band electron can recombine
directly with a hole in the valance band.
• The recombination process leads to emission of light.
• Most of the compound semiconductors belong to this group.
• Direct recombination of conduction band electron with a hole in the valance band is not possible
indirect band gap semiconductor. Silicon and germanium belong to this group. The recombination
of an electron and a hole produces heat in these materials.
• Direct bandgap semiconductors are formed by III-V elements and group IV-VI elements.
• Lasers are made using direct bandgap semiconductors gallium arsenide diode is an example of
semiconductor diode laser.

Principle
• The energy band structure Of a semiconductor consists of valence band and conduction band
separated by an energy gap Eg.
• The conduction band contains electron and the valor band contains holes and electrons
• When an electron from the conduction band jumps into a hole in the valence band the excess
energy EG is given out in the form of a photon
• Does the electron hole recombination is the basic mechanism responsible for emission of light
• The revenant of light is a given by the relation λ= hc/Eg.
• Semiconductors Having suitable value of Eg emit light in the optical region.

Types of semiconductor diode lasers

Broadly there are two types of semiconductor lasers they are Known as homojuntion semiconductor
lasers hetero junctions in conductor lasers

Homo junction semiconductor laser

• A simple diode laser which makes use of the same semiconductor material both sides of the
junction is known as homo junction diode laser.
Example: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Heterojunction semiconductor laser

• A diode laser which makes use of different semiconductor materials on the two sides of the
junction is known as heterojunction diode laser these are further classified as a single
heterojunction diode laser and double hetero junction diode laser

Homojuction semiconductor laser:

Construction:
• A schematic diagram of homostructure P-N junction laser is as shown in fig
• Staring with heavily doped n-type GaAs material, a p-region is formed on its top by diffusing
zinc atom into it
• The diode is extremely small in size with sides of the order of 1 mm
• Typically diode chips are 500 μm long and about 100μm wide and thick
• The top and bottom faces are metallized.
• Front and rear faces are polished parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of the
junction.
• The polished faces constitute the Fabry-Perot resonator
• In practice there is no necessity to polish the faces
• A pair of parallel plane cleaved at the two ends of the pn junction provides the required
reflection to form the cavity .
• The entire structure is packaged in small case which looks like the metal case used for discrete
transistor

Working:
• The energy band diagram of a heavily doped p-n junction s shown in fig
• Heavily doped p and n region are used in making laser diode
• Because of very high doping on n-side, the doner levels are broadened and extend into the
conduction band. The fermi level also is pushed into the conduction band.
• Electron occupy the potion of the conduction band lying below the fermi level.
• Similarly, on the heavily doped p-side the Fermi level lies within the valance band and holes
occupy the portion of the valance band that lies above the Fermi level.
• At thermal equilibrium, the fermi level is uniform across the junction.

The Pumping Mechanism

• When the junction is forward-biased, electrons and holes are injected into the junction region in
high concentration.
• In other words, charge carries are pumped by the dc voltage source
• When the diode current reaches a threshold value the carrier concentration in the junction region
will rise to a very high value.
Population Inversion
• As the result, the region contains a large concentration of electron within the conduction band and
simultaneously a large number of holes within the valance band.
• Holes represent absence of electron
• Thus the upper energy levels in the narrow region are having a high electron population while the
lower energy levels in the same region are vacant.
• Therefore, the condition of population inversion is attained in the narrow junction region. This
narrow zone in which population inversion occurs is called an inversion region or active region.
Lasing
• Chance recombination acts of electron and hole pairs lead to emission of spontaneous photons.
• The spontaneous photons propagating in the junction plane stimulated the conduction electrons
to jump into the vacant states of valance band.
• This stimulated electron-hole recombination produces coherent radiation.
• GaAs laser emits light at a wavelength of 9000A0 in IR region.

Heterojunction Laser:
• Heterojunction lasers are multilayer-structures designed such that the carriers are confined in
narrow region and population is built up at lower current levels.
Construction:
• In a double heterojunction laser, a GaAs layer is sandwiched between two layers of GaAlAs , the
material has a wider energy gap and a lower refractive index than GaAs.
• The top and bottom faces are metalized and metal contacts are provided to pass current through
the diode.
• The front and rear are faces are polished parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of
the junction.
Working
• The basic principle of working of heterojunction diode is similar to that of a homojunction diode.
• P-type narrow band gap GaAs layer at the centre constitutes the active layer in which the lasing
occurs.
• This layer is flanked by an n-type wide band gap GaAlAs layer on one side and by a p-type wide
band gap GaAlAs layers on the other side.
• The refractive indices of GaAlAs layers are smaller than that of GaAs layers.
The-Pumping Mechanism
• When the junction is forward-biasd, electrons and holes are injected into the active region in high
concentrations.
• When the diode current reaches a threshold value, the carrier concentrations in the active region
will rise to a very high value.
• The electrons injected from the n-type GaAlAs layer into the p-GaAs layer confront energy barrier
at the junction where p-type GaAs and p-type GaAlAs meet and are reflected back into the active
region.
• Similarly, the holes are reflected by the potential barrier provided by the higher band gap n-
GaAlAs layer. Thus the layers in heterostructure confine the charge carriers to the GaAs layer.
Population Inversion
• Due to the forward bias, the active contains a large concentration of electrons within the
conduction band and simultaneously a large number of holes within the valance band
• Thus, the upper energy levels in the active region are having a high electron population while the
lower energy levels in the same region are vacant
• Therefore, the concentration of population inversion is attained in the narrow active region
• Now the active region thickness is the thickness of p-GaAs layer. If its thickness is made small, a
smaller drive current can lead to population inversion.
Lasing
• Chance recombination acts of electron-hole pairs lead to spontaneous emission of photons.
• The spontaneous photons propagating in the active layer stimulate the conduction electrons to
jump into the vacant state of valance band and produce stimulated photons.
• The reflection at the GaAs- air interface provides sufficient feed back for laser oscillation.
• When the diode losses are off-set by the laser gain, the laser oscillations will start.
• When the radiation attains appropriate strength, laser beam emerges from the diode.
• As the refractive index of GaAs is higher than the refractive index of GaAlAs layers, the light is
trapped within the active region and travels in one direction only.
• The wavelength of the light emitted by the GaAs layer is 800 nm when its band gap is 1.55eV
Advantages

• CO2 laser