IGCSE English Language · Parts of Speech & Figurative Language Student Reference Notes
IGCSE English Language
Parts of Speech & Figurative Language
Student Reference Notes · Writer's Effect & Language Analysis
Section 1: Figurative Language
How to write about language effects (PEE framework)
Point: Identify the technique and name it. Evidence: Quote the word or phrase directly. Effect: Explain
what the writer makes the reader feel, imagine, or understand — and why. Avoid: 'it makes it more
interesting' or 'it creates imagery'. Be specific.
A. Comparison Techniques
[COMPARISON] Simile
A comparison of two things using 'like' or 'as'.
Example: "Her laughter was like bells ringing across the valley."
Effect: Creates a vivid mental picture. Helps readers relate abstract feelings to familiar concrete images,
showing the extent or quality of something.
[COMPARISON] Metaphor
States that one thing IS another — without using 'like' or 'as'.
Example: "Life is a rollercoaster. / He was a lion in battle."
Effect: More powerful than a simile — presents an idea as absolute truth. Creates a bold, direct image and
implies characteristics without stating them explicitly.
[COMPARISON] Oxymoron
Two contradictory ideas placed directly together.
Example: "Deafening silence. / Bittersweet memories."
Effect: Creates tension or complexity. Suggests a situation or feeling is paradoxical — that two opposites
can coexist. Invites the reader to reflect deeply.
[COMPARISON] Juxtaposition
Placing two contrasting ideas, images, or characters side by side.
Example: "Rich mansions towered over crumbling slums below."
Effect: Highlights contrast and inequality. Creates tension or moral commentary by forcing the reader to
see two extremes at once.
B. Sound Techniques
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IGCSE English Language · Parts of Speech & Figurative Language Student Reference Notes
[SOUND] Alliteration
Repetition of the same consonant sound at the start of nearby words.
Example: "The cold, cruel, creeping darkness closed in."
Effect: Draws attention to a phrase; creates rhythm. Hard sounds (c, k, d, g) create aggression or menace;
soft sounds (s, l, m) create calm or melancholy.
[SOUND] Sibilance
Repetition of 's', 'sh', or 'z' sounds within nearby words.
Example: "The silent, sinister snake slid silently past."
Effect: Creates a hissing or whispering quality — conveys danger, secrecy, or unease. Slows reading
pace, drawing attention to the feeling.
[SOUND] Assonance
Repetition of similar vowel sounds within nearby words.
Example: "The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain."
Effect: Creates a musical or flowing quality. Long vowels slow pace, suggesting melancholy or calm. Short
vowels create urgency and tension.
[SOUND] Onomatopoeia
A word that phonetically imitates the sound it describes.
Example: "The bees buzzed; water splashed on the rocks."
Effect: Immerses the reader in the scene through sound. Makes writing feel immediate, sensory, and vivid.
C. Imagery Techniques
[IMAGERY] Personification
Giving human qualities or actions to non-human things.
Example: "The trees whispered secrets to the wind."
Effect: Makes nature or objects feel alive, threatening, or sympathetic. Draws the reader emotionally closer
to the subject.
[IMAGERY] Imagery (Sensory)
Language that appeals to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, or gustatory.
Example: "The stench of rotting wood filled the damp, dark cellar."
Effect: Places the reader physically inside the scene; creates atmosphere and triggers an emotional or
physical response.
[IMAGERY] Pathetic Fallacy
When weather or nature reflects a character's feelings or the mood of a scene.
Example: "Dark clouds gathered as she received the news."
Effect: Creates atmosphere and often foreshadows events. Makes the setting feel emotionally charged,
reinforcing the human experience being described.
[IMAGERY] Hyperbole
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IGCSE English Language · Parts of Speech & Figurative Language Student Reference Notes
Deliberate, extreme exaggeration for emphasis or effect.
Example: "I've told you a million times. / He was so hungry he could eat a horse."
Effect: Emphasises the intensity of feeling or situation. Can create humour or convey how overwhelming
something feels — more powerful than a literal description.
D. Structure & Rhetorical Techniques
[STRUCTURE] Repetition
Deliberate use of the same word or phrase more than once.
Example: "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds..."
Effect: Emphasises a key idea. Builds rhythm and emotional intensity; can feel relentless, determined, or
desperate depending on context.
[STRUCTURE] Anaphora
Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.
Example: "Every day, every hour, every minute he waited."
Effect: Builds urgency, emotion, and momentum. The repeated phrase hammers home the key idea and
creates a powerful cumulative effect.
[STRUCTURE] Rhetorical Question
A question asked for effect — not expecting an answer from the reader.
Example: "How many more lives must be lost before we act?"
Effect: Engages the reader directly; makes them think and draw their own conclusions. Can challenge,
provoke, or create a sense of shared urgency.
[STRUCTURE] Irony
Saying the opposite of what is meant, or a situation that is the reverse of expectation.
Example: "'What lovely weather,' she said as the rain poured down."
Effect: Creates humour, sarcasm, or a sense of the absurd. Can highlight injustice, hypocrisy, or the gap
between appearance and reality.
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IGCSE English Language · Parts of Speech & Figurative Language Student Reference Notes
Section 2: Parts of Speech
Why word class matters in language analysis
Naming the word class shows technical awareness and earns marks. E.g. 'The writer uses the verb
"crept" rather than "walked" to suggest stealth and growing danger.' Always explain WHY that specific
word class and word choice creates the effect — not just WHAT it is.
A word that names a person, place, thing, or idea (concrete or abstract).
Examples: dog, London, freedom, despair, chaos
Noun
Concrete nouns create vivid images; abstract nouns (despair, hope, chaos) convey
emotions and atmosphere. Ask: what connotations does this noun carry?
A word expressing an action, event, or state of being.
Examples: crept, shattered, glowed, devoured, stumbled
Verb
Often the most powerful word class. A specific verb (e.g. 'stumbled') conveys manner,
emotion, and pace — far more than a general one like 'fell'.
A word that describes or modifies a noun.
Examples: gleaming, desolate, frail, hostile, suffocating
Adjective
Adjective choice is crucial. Ask: what connotations does this adjective carry? E.g. 'frail'
implies vulnerability and pathos — far more affecting than 'thin'.
A word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
Examples: silently, fiercely, barely, endlessly, desperately
Adverb
'He barely whispered' conveys weakness and effort. 'She fiercely resisted' conveys
determination. Adverbs intensify or qualify the action.
A word that replaces a noun to avoid repetition.
Examples: he, she, they, we, I, you, it
Pronoun
'We' and 'you' create collective identity or address the reader directly. First person ('I')
invites intimacy; third person creates emotional distance.
A specific name for a person, place, or organisation — always capitalised.
Examples: Thames, Shakespeare, Oxford, Auschwitz
Proper Noun
Writers use proper nouns to root the reader in a specific real place or time, adding
authenticity, cultural weight, or historical significance.
Shows the relationship between a noun/pronoun and another word — indicating
time, place, or direction.
Preposition Examples: beneath, above, beyond, within, across
Prepositions of place create spatial relationships. 'Below', 'above', 'beyond' can imply
hierarchy, threat, power, or the unattainable.
Conjunction A word that joins clauses, sentences, or words.
Examples: but, although, because, and, yet, however
Starting a sentence with 'But' or 'Yet' creates contrast and emphasis. Repeated 'and'
(polysyndeton) builds breathless momentum; its absence (asyndeton) creates
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IGCSE English Language · Parts of Speech & Figurative Language Student Reference Notes
abruptness.
A word placed before a noun to show which one is referred to.
Examples: the, a, this, every, no, each
Determiner 'The' (definite) implies something specific and known. 'A' (indefinite) suggests one of
many. 'Every' implies universality — e.g. 'every child' creates a sweeping, inclusive
statement.
An exclamatory word or phrase expressing sudden emotion.
Examples: Oh! / Alas / Indeed / Hush / No!
Interjection
Creates immediacy and conveys raw emotion. Often used in dialogue or interior
monologue to reveal a character's state of mind in an unguarded moment.
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IGCSE English Language · Parts of Speech & Figurative Language Student Reference Notes
Section 3: Writing About Language — Key Tips
The PEE Framework
Identify and name the technique or language feature. Be specific — say 'simile', 'verb',
P Point
'personification', not just 'language'.
Quote the exact word or phrase from the text. Keep quotes short and precise — one word
E Evidence
or a short phrase is often best.
Explain what effect this has on the reader: what it makes them feel, imagine, or understand
E Effect
— and WHY the writer made this choice.
Useful Sentence Starters for Analysis
Model phrases for your written responses
• 'The writer uses the [noun/verb/adjective] "___" to suggest...' • 'The [technique] "___" conveys a
sense of...' • 'This creates an atmosphere of... because...' • 'The reader is made to feel... through the
use of...' • 'This implies that... reinforcing the idea that...' • 'The [word class] "___" is particularly
effective as it connotes...'
Connotation vs Denotation
Denotation Connotation
The literal, dictionary definition of a word. The feelings, ideas, or associations a word
suggests.
'Serpent' denotes: a snake.
'Serpent' connotes: evil, betrayal, danger (Biblical).
Sound Devices — Go Beyond 'It sounds nice'
How to analyse sound effectively
Hard consonants (k, d, t, g, p): Feel aggressive, harsh, or abrupt — convey anger, violence, urgency.
Soft consonants (l, m, n, s, r): Feel calm, flowing, or melancholic — convey peace, sadness,
gentleness. Short vowels (a, e, i): Create quickness and tension. Long vowels (oh, ee, oo): Slow the
pace; suggest reflection, sorrow, or calm. Always connect the sound quality to the meaning of the
passage.
Sentence Structure & Its Effects
Short sentence Tension, shock, finality, emphasis. Slows the reader down.
Long sentence Calm, description, complexity, a flowing thought process.
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IGCSE English Language · Parts of Speech & Figurative Language Student Reference Notes
Sentence fragment Disorder, urgency, emphasis, shock. Like a thought cut short.
Polysyndeton Repeated 'and' — builds breathless momentum or overwhelm.
Asyndeton Listing without 'and' — creates abruptness, pace, or a sense of overwhelm.
Mark Band Language (Moving to Higher Bands)
Use these words to analyse — not just describe
Lower bands describe. Higher bands analyse and evaluate. Replace vague words with precise
analytical vocabulary: 'makes it interesting' → implies / suggests / conveys / evokes 'compares' →
juxtaposes / contrasts / parallels 'shows' → reinforces / foreshadows / undermines / subverts 'talks
about' → explores / depicts / portrays / critiques 'uses a lot of' → accumulates / builds / layers /
intensifies
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Mistake Better approach
Quoting without analysing Always follow every quote with an explanation of effect.
'It creates imagery' Say what KIND of image and what feeling it creates.
'The author uses a metaphor to compare two things' Explain WHY and what it makes the reader feel.
'It makes it more interesting' Be specific: 'it creates a sense of
dread/urgency/sympathy...'
Identifying technique without linking to meaning Always connect the technique to the writer's purpose.
Long, unfocused quotes Quote only the key word or short phrase — analyse that
specifically.
Remember: technique + evidence + effect = full marks analysis.
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