Computer Networks

A group of two or more similar things or people interconnected with each other is called network.

A computer network is a collection of computers and other hardware components interconnected by

communication channels. These networks allow devices to share resources and information. Think of
a network as a web of interconnected nodes where each node can communicate with others.

Evolution of Networking :-

ARPANET :- Advance Research Project Agency Network. Arpanet was developed by U.S Department
of Defence to connect the academic and research institutions located at different places for scientific
collaborations.

ARPANET was developed in since 1960s.

Types of Networks :- There was two types of networks .

1. Wired / Geographical based.
2. Wireless base.
In Geographical based there was 5 types of networks.
• PAN ( Personal Area Network)
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
• CAN (Campus Area Network)
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
 Definition: A small network designed for personal use, typically within a range of a
few meters.
 Scope: Connects devices such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops in close proximity,
usually within a room or small area.
 Example: Bluetooth connections between a smartphone and wireless headphones or
a USB connection between a laptop and a printer.
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
 Definition: A network that covers a small geographic area, such as a single building
or campus.
 Scope: Connects multiple devices within a limited area, allowing them to share
resources like files, printers, and internet access.
 Example: A home network connecting computers, smart TVs, and printers or a school
network connecting computers in a lab.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Definition: A network that covers a larger geographic area than a LAN but smaller
than a WAN, typically within a city or a large campus.
 Scope: Used to connect multiple LANs within a city or town, enabling
communication between different locations.
 Example: A network linking various branch offices of a company within a city or a
public Wi-Fi network provided by a city.
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Definition: A network that spans a large geographic area, often covering multiple
cities, countries, or continents.
 Scope: Connects LANs and MANs across broad distances, enabling communication
on a global scale.
 Example: The Internet is the largest example of a WAN, connecting networks and
devices worldwide. A company’s global network that links offices in different
countries is another example.
5. Campus Area Network (CAN)
Definition: A network that connect the campus area or a university.
Scope :- Connect all the cables that are stablished on the campus.
Example :- A simple university area network.
Network Devices :-
To communicate data through different transmission media and to configure networks
with different functionality, we require different devices like Modem, Hub, Switch,
Repeater, Router, Gateway, etc.
1. Modem :- A modem is a communication device used in computer networks to
connect a computer to the internet.
 The word modem stands for Modulator-Demodulator.
 It converts digital signals from a computer into analog signals for transmission
over telephone lines.
 It also converts incoming analog signals back into digital signals so that the
computer can understand them.
 Modulation is the process of converting digital signals into analog signals.
 Demodulation is the process of converting analog signals into digital signals.
 Modems are used in homes, offices, and internet service connections.
 Types of modems include internal modem, external modem, cable modem, and
wireless modem.
2. Ethernet Card :- Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface Card (NIC card in
short) is a network adapter used to set up a wired network. It is a circuit board
mounted on the motherboard of a computer. The Ethernet cable connects the
computer to the network through NIC. The data transfer speed is in between 10
Mbps and 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps). Each NIC has a MAC address, which helps in
uniquely identifying the computer on the network.

3. RJ45 :- RJ 45 or Registered Jack-45 is an eight-pin connector. that is

used exclusively with Ethernet cables for networking. it is a small
plastic plug that fits into RJ-45 jacks of the Ethernet cards present in
various computing devices.

4. Repeater :- A repeater is an analog device that works with signals

on the cables to which it is connected. The weakened signal
appearing on the cable is regenerated and put back on the cable by
a repeater.
An Internet service provider (ISP) is any organisation that
provides services for accessing the Internet.
5. Hub :- A Hub is a network device that is used to connect different
devices through wires.
In Hub it connect multiple devices and when the data is arrived from
multiple devices it directly sent to all connected devices and
generate the network traffic.
A hub is also called a multiport repeater. A hub is workable on
physical layer of osi model. Hubs are simple, low-cost devices but
less efficient compared to switches.

6. Switch :- A switch is a networking device that plays a central role

in a Local Area Network (LAN). a network switch is used to connect
multiple computers or communicating devices. Switch send the data
only that device that is request for the data so it can not cause the
network [Link] can also forward multiple packets at the same
time. And it also not forward the signal which is noisy or
[Link] drops the weak signal and asks sender to resend it.

7. Router- A router is a network device that can receive the data,

analyse it and transmit it to other networks. A router connects a
local area network to the internet. A router forwards data from one
network to another based on the IP address. Unlike a hub, a router
sends data only to the required destination. Routers can be wired or
wireless (Wi-Fi routers). It also provides security features like firewall and network
protection. These routers connect to incoming broadband lines, from ISP (Internet
Service Provider), and convert them to digital data for computing devices to process.
Gateway :- Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network. as all data coming in or
going out of a network must first pass through the gateway in order to use routing paths. If a
node from one network wants to communicate with a node of a foreign network, it will pass
the data packet to the gateway, which then routes it to the destination using the best possible
route. A gateway converts data from one protocol format to another so that communication
can happen between different systems. Gateways are used to connect dissimilar networks,
such as a local network to the Internet.
Network Topology :- The arrangement of computers and other peripherals in a network
is called its topology.
Common network topologies are Mesh, Ring, Bus, Star and Tree.
Mesh Topology :- Mesh topology is a network topology in which every device is connected
to every other device.
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with all other devices.
In a fully connected mesh, if there are n devices, each device is connected to (n-1) devices.
It provides high reliability because if one connection fails, other paths are still available.
Data can be transmitted through multiple paths, which increases fault tolerance.
It is very secure because data travels through dedicated links.
Mesh topology is expensive due to a large number of cables and connections.
It is difficult to install and maintain.
It is mostly used in critical systems like military or banking networks.

Ring Topology :-
Ring topology is a network topology in which all devices are connected in a circular (ring)
structure.
Each device is connected to exactly two other devices — one on each side.
Data travels in one direction (clockwise or anticlockwise) around the ring.
Each device receives the data, checks it, and forwards it to the next device.
A special method called token passing is used to control data transmission.
Only the device with the token can send data, which avoids collisions.
It is more efficient than bus topology in terms of data flow.
If one device or connection fails, the entire network may get affected.
It is not easy to troubleshoot compared to star topology.
 3. Bus Topology :-
Bus topology is a network topology in which all devices are connected to a single main cable
called the backbone.
The backbone acts as a shared communication medium for all devices.
Data sent by any device travels along the entire cable.
All devices receive the signal, but only the intended device accepts the data.
Terminators are placed at both ends of the cable to prevent signal reflection.
It is simple and easy to install.
It requires less cable compared to other topologies, so it is cost-effective.
If the main backbone cable fails, the entire network stops working.
It is not suitable for large networks due to data collisions and reduced performance

4. Star Topology :- In star topology each communicating device is connected to a

central node, which is a networking device like a hub or a switch
Star topology is considered very effective, efficient and fast as each device is directly
connected with the central device
any failure in a central networking device may lead to the failure of complete network.
The central node can be either a broadcasting device means data will be transmitted to all the
nodes in the network, or a unicast device means the node can identify the destination and
forward data to that node only.

5. Tree Topology :- It is a hierarchical topology, in which there are multiple branches

and each branch can have one or more basic topologies like star, ring and bus.
This type of topology is used in wan network where multiple lan technology are
connected with each other.
In this type of network, data transmitted from source first reaches the centralised
device and from there the data passes through every branch where each branch can
have links for more nodes.
MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)
 A MAC address is a unique identification number assigned to a
network device.
 It is given by the manufacturer and is permanent in nature.
 It works at the data link layer of the OSI model.
 It is also called a physical address.
 A MAC address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number.
 It is usually written in the format:
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E
 The first half represents the manufacturer, and the second half
represents the device.
 It is used for communication within a local network (LAN).
 No two devices have the same MAC address.
IP Address (Internet Protocol Address)
 An IP address is a logical address used to identify a device on a
network.
 It is assigned by the network or internet service provider.
 It works at the network layer of the OSI model.
 It is used to locate a device and enable communication over the
internet.
 It can change depending on the network (dynamic IP).
 There are two main versions:
o IPv4 (e.g., [Link])
o IPv6 (e.g., 2001:0db8::1)
 IPv4 is a 32-bit address, and IPv6 is a 128-bit address.
 It is used for communication between different networks.
🔹 Internet
 The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers.
 It connects millions of devices worldwide.
 It allows communication and data sharing between users.
 It works using standard protocols like TCP/IP.
 It provides services such as email, file transfer, and web browsing.
 It is also called a network of networks.
  It is used in education, business, communication, and
entertainment.
✅ Short Definition:
The Internet is a worldwide network that connects computers and allows
communication and data exchange.

🔹 Web (World Wide Web)

 The Web is a service that runs on the Internet.
 It consists of web pages and websites.
 It was developed by Tim Berners-Lee.
 Web pages are accessed using web browsers.
 It uses HTTP/HTTPS protocols.
 It allows users to view text, images, videos, and other content.
 It is a part of the Internet, not the Internet itself.
✅ Short Definition:
The Web is a collection of web pages and websites that can be accessed
through the Internet.

🔹 Internet of Things (IoT)

 IoT refers to a network of physical devices connected to the
Internet.
 These devices can collect and exchange data.
 Examples include smart TVs, smart homes, smart watches, and
sensors.
 IoT devices use sensors and software to function.
 It helps in automation and smart decision-making.
 It is widely used in healthcare, agriculture, and smart cities.
 It improves efficiency and saves time.
✅ Short Definition:
IoT is a system of interconnected devices that communicate and share
data over the Internet.
Domain Name System and DNS Server:-
 Domain Name System (DNS) is a system used to convert domain
names into IP addresses.
 It helps users access websites using easy-to-remember names
instead of numerical IP addresses.
 For example, a website name like [Link] is converted
into its IP address.
 DNS acts like a phonebook of the Internet.
 When a user enters a domain name, DNS finds the corresponding IP
address.
 It works automatically in the background when we browse the
Internet.
  DNS servers store records of domain names and their IP addresses.
 It makes Internet usage simple and user-friendly.

✅ Short Definition :
Domain Name System (DNS) is a system that translates domain names
into IP addresses for easy access to websites.

 A DNS server is a computer server that stores domain names and

their corresponding IP addresses.

 It helps in converting a domain name into an IP address.

 When a user enters a website name, the DNS server searches for its
IP address.

 It responds by providing the correct IP address to the browser.

 This process is called name resolution.

 DNS servers work in a hierarchical structure (root server, domain

server, local server).

 It makes accessing websites fast and easy.

 Without DNS servers, users would have to remember IP addresses of

websites.

✅ Short Definition
A DNS server is a server that translates domain names into IP addresses.