ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Detailed Study Notes

Ecosystem: Structure, Function & Types

LESSON 2: ECOSYSTEM — STRUCTURE

1. Concept of Ecosystem
An ecosystem is the basic structural and functional unit of the environment. When living and non-
living components of nature interact with each other to establish a stable living community, the
result is called an Ecosystem.
Key idea: There is constant exchange between living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components.
Neither can form an ecosystem alone — they are complementary to each other.
The theme of every ecosystem is energy flow. Sustenance depends on energy dependence and
energy transfer among all components.

2. Definition of Ecosystem

Definition
The study of all physical and biological processes including the distribution and abundance
of living organisms and their interactions with the surrounding environment. Changes in
abiotic factors alter the type and number of organisms in an area.

• Examples: Terrestrial (land-based) ecosystems, Aquatic (water-based) ecosystems

3. Structure of Ecosystem
The ecosystem is divided into two main components:

3.1 Biotic Components

Living organisms classified by their food relationships into three groups:

A. Producers (Autotrophs)
Self-nourishing organisms that produce food using CO₂, water, sunlight, and chlorophyll through
photosynthesis.
• Examples: Green plants, Algae, Cyanobacteria

B. Consumers (Heterotrophs)
Depend on producers for energy. Three sub-types:

Consumer Level Also Called Diet Examples

Primary Herbivores Green plants/autotrophs Grasshoppers, Rabbits,
Consumers only Goats
Secondary Carnivores (Level Primary consumers Frogs, Jackals, Snakes
Consumers 1) (herbivores)
Tertiary Consumers Top Carnivores Secondary consumers Tigers, Lions, Vulture, Kite

C. Decomposers (Saprophytes / Detrivores)

Break down dead and decaying organic material. Do not contain chlorophyll. Play a vital role in
completing the Biogeochemical Cycle.
• Examples: Bacteria, Fungi, Earthworm

Consumers in Different Ecosystems

Ecosystem Primary Consumer Secondary Tertiary Consumer
Consumer
Grassland Grasshoppers, Frogs, Lizards, Hawks, Eagle, Tiger
Rabbits, Deer Snakes, Birds
Forest Leafhoppers, Insects, Birds, Owl, Lizards, Tiger, Lion
Deer, Elephants Jackals
Desert Insects, Rats, Scorpions, Fox, Snakes, Hyena,
Squirrel, Camel Mongoose Eagles, Kites
Pond/Lake Insects, Frogs, Larger Fishes, Largest Fishes,
Zooplankton Cranes Water Snakes,
Hawks
Marine Zooplankton, Small Bigger Fishes, Sharks, Whales,
Fishes Mackerel Snakes, Hawks

3.2 Abiotic Components

Non-living factors in solid, liquid, or gaseous form. Divided into two categories:

A. Climatic Factors
• Light
 • Temperature
• Humidity & Water/Rainfall

B. Edaphic Factors (Soil-related)

• Soil (texture, pH, minerals)
• Organic and Inorganic components of soil
• Substratum

Climatic Factor: Light

Importance for Plants:
1. Chlorophyll production
2. Determines plant distribution across regions (tropical, temperate, tundra)
3. Decides physiology of plants in different regions
4. Regulates temperature → affects transpiration and water absorption
5. Controls stomatal movement (opening/closing to regulate water loss)
6. Duration of light controls flowering — long-day vs short-day plants

Importance for Animals:

7. Metabolism — controls enzymatic activity
8. Vision — essential for sight
9. Pigmentation — skin color depends on natural light
10. Reproduction — breeding activities triggered by light duration
11. Circadian Rhythm — daily physiological response to light

Climatic Factor: Temperature

For Plants For Animals
Affects metabolic activity and physiology Warm-blooded (Endothermic): constant body
temp — Mammals, Birds
Controls growth and development across seasons Cold-blooded (Ectothermic): body temp changes
with environment — Frogs
Thermal stratification in aquatic ecosystems Drives thermal migration of birds and animals

Climatic Factor: Water

• Amount of water determines the type of ecosystem that develops
• Essential for photosynthesis, mineral circulation, and metabolism in plants
• Regulates body temperature in plants and animals
• Rainfall determines vegetation type: Deciduous forest, Evergreen forest, Deserts
• Humidity affects plant and animal distribution
• Plants like Epiphytes, Orchids, Lichens can use atmospheric moisture directly
Edaphic Factor: Soil
• Provides platform for plants to grow and animals to dwell
• Soil pH determines plant and animal types: pH < 7 = acidic; pH > 7 = alkaline; pH 6.5–7.5 =
preferred for most organisms
• Associated with macronutrients (needed in large quantity) and micronutrients (needed in
small quantity)
• Soil texture (rocky, swampy, mining areas) determines biotic communities

4. Ecological Pyramids

Definition
A graphical representation of the relationship between various trophic-level organisms in a
Food Chain. First designed by Charles Elton — also called Eltonian Pyramids or Food
Pyramids.

Three types of Ecological Pyramids:

A. Pyramid of Numbers
Counts the number of organisms at each trophic level.
12. Producers are highest in number
13. Number decreases from bottom (producers) to top (apex predators)
14. Living organisms at each trophic level collectively = Standing Crop
15. Normally upright — Grassland ecosystem, Aquatic ecosystem
16. Can be inverted (parasitic chains)
17. Forest ecosystem shows a spindle/mixed shape

B. Pyramid of Biomass
Biomass = total dry weight of organisms at any point in time.
• Forest and Grassland ecosystem → Upright pyramid
• Pond ecosystem → Inverted pyramid (aquatic producers have high turnover rate)

C. Pyramid of Energy
Most important type. Shows energy transfer across trophic levels.
• Only 10% of energy is transferred to the next trophic level (10% Rule)
• Always upright — never inverted or spindle-shaped
• Shape is NOT affected by organism size, biomass, number, or metabolic rate
 10% Energy Rule Example
If Producers generate 10,000 kcal → Primary Consumers receive 1,000 kcal → Secondary
Consumers receive 100 kcal → Tertiary Consumers receive 10 kcal

Limitations of Ecological Pyramids

18. Position of certain organisms is not fixed — may vary across ecosystems
19. No consideration of seasonal changes
20. Role of detrivores (decomposers) is not represented

5. Ecological Succession

Definition (Clement)
The natural process by which the same locality becomes successively colonised by different
groups or communities of plants. Term coined by Hult (1885).

Characteristics
21. Species and community change in an orderly process
22. Physical structure of community changes through biological action
23. A stable ecosystem eventually gets established with both biotic and abiotic factors in
equilibrium
24. A climax community gets established, maintaining equilibrium with the environment

Causes of Ecological Succession

a) Initial Causes
• Climatic Factors: Soil erosion, floods, heavy rainfall, fire, drought, land slides, oil deposition
• Biotic Factors: Deforestation, overgrazing, Jhum cultivation

b) Continuous Causes
• Migration for safety, urbanization, industrialization, better life

c) Stabilizing Causes
• Climatic conditions, mineral availability, soil fertility, continuous food and energy flow

Types of Ecological Succession

Type Description Example
Primary Begins on bare substrate with no prior life Volcanic eruptions, Rocky
Type Description Example
Succession areas
Secondary Begins on previously lived areas damaged by After flood, fire, acid rain
Succession natural events
Autogenic Driven by biotic components; community Forest replacing grassland
Succession modifies its own habitat over time
Allogenic Driven by abiotic factors changing the habitat Volcanic eruption, climate
Succession change, earthquake
Induced Man-made process for human benefit Crop cultivation in a field
Succession
Autotrophic Area rich in inorganic content but poor in Pioneer plant colonization of
Succession organic matter bare rock
Heterotrophic Starts in areas rich in organic content, Forest litter, sewage areas
Succession dominated by saprophytes with fungi/mushrooms
Retrogressive Succession goes backward due to heavy Forest → shrubland →
Succession biotic interference grassland → barren land due
to deforestation
LESSON 3: ECOSYSTEM — FUNCTION
3.1 Biogeochemical Cycle
In an ecosystem, biological and physical components pass through underground and above-ground
pathways completing cycles. About 40 elements are required by living organisms. This is also
called the Nutrient Cycle.

Category Cycles Included

Atmospheric Nutrient Cycles Water Cycle, Carbon Cycle, Oxygen Cycle
Edaphic Nutrient Cycles Nitrogen Cycle, Sulphur Cycle, Phosphorous Cycle

A. Water Cycle
• Plants absorb water through roots for photosynthesis and metabolic activity
• Water returns to atmosphere via transpiration
• Driving force: Solar radiation (15% of total radiation reaching Earth)
• Water evaporates from water bodies → condenses → returns as rainfall

B. Carbon Cycle
• Plants fix CO₂ through photosynthesis → carbohydrates are produced
• Animals consume carbohydrates (photosynthetic products)
• CO₂ is released by respiration of all living organisms
• Earth's crust releases carbon as CaCO₃ (Calcium Carbonate) and MgCO₃ (Magnesium
Carbonate) from marine skeletal remains
• Burning of fossil fuels releases large quantities of CO₂
• When heterotrophs die, carbon returns to earth's crust

C. Oxygen Cycle
• Dry atmosphere contains 20.94% oxygen
• All living organisms require oxygen for respiration
• Oxygen is released by photosynthesis and consumed by respiration — the simplest but
essential nutrient cycle

D. Nitrogen Cycle (Complex)

79% of atmospheric air is nitrogen. Pure N₂ gas cannot be used by green plants — only Nitrate and
Ammonium forms can be absorbed.
 Step Process Details
1. Nitrogen Nitrification (Non- During lightning, N₂ combines with O₂ — requires high
Fixation biological) energy
1. Nitrogen Nitrification Chemical fertilizers produced in industries
Fixation (Artificial)
1. Nitrogen Biological Fixation By free-living organisms: Azobacter, Anabaena, Nostoc
Fixation — Non-Symbiotic
1. Nitrogen Biological Fixation Root nodules of legumes with Rhizobium bacteria; N₂ →
Fixation — Symbiotic NH₃ → amino acids → nucleic acids (DNA/RNA)
2. Decomposition by Dead organisms → NH₃ or NH₄ compounds (e.g.,
Ammonification bacteria Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus)
3. Nitrification NH₄ → Nitrates Nitrates absorbed by plants → proteins, nucleic acids,
(NO₃) organic compounds
4. Denitrification Nitrates → N₂ gas By denitrifying bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas) → N₂
released back to atmosphere

Biological Nitrogen Fixation — Special Cases

Anabaena-Azolla association; Cycas Coralloid roots (non-nodular symbiosis). Legumes are
regarded as biofertilizers because they reduce the need for chemical fertilizers.

E. Sulphur Cycle
Sedimentary type of nutrient cycle — reserve pool buried underground in rocks, minerals, and
sulphates (SO₄) in sea sediments.
Forms of Sulphur in Nature:
• Hydrogen Sulphide (H₂S)
• Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂)
• Sulphates (SO₄)
Cycle Summary:
25. Plants absorb soluble sulphate from soil through roots
26. Plants synthesize proteins, vitamins using sulphur
27. Transferred to animals through the food chain
28. Aerobic bacteria decompose organic sulphur → SO₄ or H₂S
29. Anaerobic bacteria convert H₂S → elemental sulphur → returns to soil
30. SO₂ released by burning fossil fuels (petroleum, coal)

F. Phosphorus Cycle
• More phosphorus in plants and animals than in the abiotic system
• In abiotic system, abundant in rocks and natural deposits (geological processes)
• Essential for DNA structure, coenzymes, energy conversion
 • Plants absorb soluble phosphorus from soil → transferred through food chain → returns via
death/decay/excreta
• 60,000 tons returned to soil through seabirds, fishes, and algae
• Major loss: phosphorus lost to the sea via runoff

3.2 Food Chain

Definition (Odum, 1971)

The transfer of food energy from the source (plants) through a series of organisms with
repeated eating and being eaten.

Flow: Plants (Autotrophs) → Primary Consumers (Herbivores) → Secondary Consumers

(Carnivores) → Tertiary Consumers

Types of Food Chains

Feature Grazing Food Chain Detritus Food Chain
Starting point Living green plants Dead plants or animals
Sunlight Yes — photosynthesis-based No — sunlight not required
dependence
Energy transferred More energy Less energy
Example Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Dead matter → Scavengers →
Snake → Hawk Microorganisms

Note: Grazing and Detritus Food Chains operate independently but are parts of the same
ecosystem. Together they complete the nutrient cycle.

3.2.2 Food Web

In nature, the linear food chain is rarely found alone. A Food Web is a complex, interconnected
network of food chains where species can be replaced if one is absent — maintaining the 'eat and
be eaten' system.
• Plays a significant role in the balance and stability of an ecosystem
• Example: If deer disappear → grasses increase → invade croplands → upper carnivores
like tigers lose food and die
• Food Web is nature's mechanism to maintain ecosystem balance
3.3 Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
According to the First Law of Thermodynamics, energy cannot be created or destroyed — only
transferred from one form to another.

Energy Flow Models

Model Description
Single Channel Energy Flow Follows the food chain; one-way direction. Shorter food chain = more
energy at top level. Example: Grassland ecosystem (grass → herbivore
→ carnivore)
Y-Shaped Energy Flow Explains the connection between grazing and detritus food chains. At
Model every stage, both chains are linked. Decomposers can be eaten by top
predators (e.g., earthworms eaten by hawks). Named 'Y' because of its
shape.

3.4 Productivity
Productivity = amount of organic matter (food) produced by a plant per unit time.

Type Description Formula/Notes

Gross Primary Total rate of photosynthesis by GPP = CO₂ fixed per gram of
Productivity (GPP) photosynthetic organisms chlorophyll per hour
Net Primary Energy remaining after plant's own NPP = GPP − Respiration Energy
Productivity (NPP) respiration use
Secondary Energy stored at consumer level Associated with heterotrophs; moves
Productivity through food chain (Odum uses
'assimilation')
Net Productivity Storage energy remaining in Measured as biomass; expressed as
consumer after respiration mg C/m²/day

Homeostasis

Definition (Odum, 1971)

The tendency of a natural ecosystem to resist change and remain in a state of equilibrium.
Within any ecosystem, there is always a balance between production, consumption, and
decomposition. (Homeo = same; stasis = standing)

Natural ecosystems maintain self-regulation at any point in time — known as a stable steady state.
LESSON 4: TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS & ECOSYSTEM
SERVICES
1. Types of Ecosystems
Ecosystems range from small water bodies to oceans; from a patch of woods to a vast forest. They
can be natural or anthropogenic (human-created, e.g., farmlands).
• Broadly classified into: Terrestrial Ecosystems and Aquatic Ecosystems

I. Terrestrial Ecosystems
1. Forest Ecosystem
Community of plants, animals, and microorganisms with their non-living environment, exchanging
material and energy. Trees, shrubs, climbers, and ground cover are main components.

Forest Type Location in India Characteristics Key Species

Coniferous High-altitude Snow-covered months; tall Pine, Deodar; Wild goat,
Forest Himalayan ranges trees with downward- Snow leopard, Himalayan
sloping branches; needle- brown bear
like leaves; gymnosperms
Evergreen Western Ghats, NE High rainfall; trees shed Orchids, Ferns; Tiger,
Forest India, Andaman & leaves throughout year; Leopard, Lion-tailed
Nicobar Islands dense canopy; highest macaque
species richness
Deciduous Central Highlands, Moderate rainfall; seasonal Teak, Sal, Ain; Tiger,
Forest Deccan Peninsula leaf shedding; thick Cheetal, Barking deer
undergrowth
Thorn/Scrub Semi-arid and arid Low rainfall; sparse trees Babool, Khejdi, Ber;
Forest regions surrounded by grassland; Blackbuck, Chinkara, Monitor
xerophytic plants lizard
Mangrove Coastal intertidal Dense prop roots; survive Royal Bengal Tiger,
Forest zones (Sundarbans, in low-oxygen, slow- Crocodiles, Herons
W Bengal) moving water; protect
coastlines

Threats to Forest Ecosystems:

• Deforestation and forest fragmentation from urbanization, industrialization, agriculture
• Over-exploitation of forest resources
• Invasive species
Conservation:
• Afforestation programs, sustainable resource use, protected area networks
2. Tundra Ecosystem
• Arctic Tundra: Extreme northern latitudes; long severe winters; short growing season
• Alpine Tundra: Higher elevations above tree line
• Characteristics: Low species richness, low primary productivity, poor precipitation
• Dominant vegetation: Mosses, lichens, grasses, dwarf willows and birches
• Animals: Lemmings, voles, weasels, arctic foxes, snowy owls
• Threats: Oil/gas exploration, military use, climate change (permafrost melting → replaced by
coniferous trees)

3. Grasslands
Landscapes with predominantly grasses and small annual plants.
Type Characteristics Indian Examples
Tropical Warm throughout year; dry and rainy Terai grasslands (foothills of
Grassland seasons; Giraffe, Zebra, Lions (Africa) Himalayas)
(Savanna)
Temperate Less rainfall; seasonal appearance; short Himalayan pasture belt; Shola
Grassland grasses; growing and dormant seasons grasslands (Western Ghats, Nilgiris)

• Threats: Overgrazing, expansion of agricultural land

• Uses: Pasturelands, fuelwood, pollinator habitats

4. Desert Ecosystem
• Receives less than 12 cm rainfall per year
• Thar Desert (Rajasthan): Sand dunes, sparse grasses, shrubs
• Cold Desert: Ladakh (high Himalayan plateau)
• Rann of Kutch: Seasonal salt marshes; Great Indian Bustard, Flamingos, Wild Ass
• Animals: Desert cat, Desert fox, Indian wolf, Great Indian Bustard, Florican

II. Aquatic Ecosystems

Type Salinity Key Features
Freshwater — Low Stagnant; ponds are smallest; lakes are permanent; detritus
Lentic (Ponds & feeders like catfish
Lakes)
Freshwater — Lotic Low Running water; currents important; rapid zone (firm bottom)
(Streams & Rivers) and pool zone (soft, deep bottom)
Brackish Water — Intermediate Where rivers meet oceans; high productivity; salt marshes
Estuaries and mud flats; most fisheries depend on estuaries
 Type Salinity Key Features
Marine — Oceans High (3.5%) 70% of Earth's surface; extremely deep (organisms beyond
5000m); connected worldwide

Ocean Communities
31. Littoral Communities: Coastal belt affected by waves and tides — oyster, barnacles, kelp
32. Coral Reef Communities: Symbiosis between coelenterate animals and algae
(dinoflagellates); found in warm tropical/subtropical waters; highest biodiversity — India: Gulf
of Kutch, Andaman, Lakshadweep, Gulf of Munnar; World's largest: Great Barrier Reef,
Australia
33. Continental Shelf (Neritic) Benthos: Below littoral zone; diverse algae, fish, crustaceans
34. Marine Surface Pelagic: Phytoplankton (dinoflagellates, diatoms), Zooplankton (copepods),
shrimp, tunicates
35. Marine Deep Pelagic: Below lighted waters; heterotrophic organisms; feed on settling
plankton/dead matter
36. Deep Open Benthos: Deep ocean floor; no light; only heterotrophs and bacteria

2. Ecosystem Services
Direct and indirect benefits humans receive from nature. Essential for basic functioning of Earth.

Service Type Description Examples

Provisioning Material products from nature Fruits, crops, honey, fish, freshwater,
Services fuelwood, timber, medicines, natural gas,
genetic resources
Regulating Benefits from ecosystem Air/water purification, climate regulation, flood
Services functions control, carbon storage, soil erosion
prevention, pollination, pest control, waste
decomposition
Cultural Services Non-material benefits Spiritual enrichment, intellectual development,
recreation, aesthetic values, art, music,
architecture inspired by nature
Supporting Processes sustaining other Biogeochemical cycles, photosynthesis, soil
Services services creation, water cycle — foundation for all
other services

3. Ecosystem Preservation, Conservation & Restoration

Concept Definition
Ecological Restoration Process of assisting recovery of a partially or fully degraded ecosystem —
Concept Definition
restoring to former state. Focuses on health, integrity, and sustainability.
Rehabilitation Returning degraded land to a fully functional ecosystem irrespective of
original state but per a prior landuse plan. Partial species recovery,
reducing livestock grazing, allowing natural vegetation growth.
Remediation Using physical and biological methods to clean chemical contaminants from
polluted ecosystems to protect human and ecosystem health.
Reclamation Restoring biotic function and productivity of severely damaged land.
Mitigation Restoration, rehabilitation, or reclamation process to reduce the effect of
the source of degradation.
QUICK REVISION: KEY TERMS

Term Meaning
Ecosystem Basic structural and functional unit of environment; living + non-
living interaction
Autotrophs/Producers Self-nourishing organisms (green plants, algae, cyanobacteria)
Heterotrophs/Consumers Organisms dependent on autotrophs for energy (herbivores,
carnivores)
Decomposers/Detrivores Break down dead organic matter (bacteria, fungi, earthworms)
Climatic Factors Light, temperature, humidity, rainfall
Edaphic Factors Soil, organic/inorganic components, substratum
Ecological Pyramid Graphical representation of trophic level relationships (Number,
Biomass, Energy)
10% Rule Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the
next
Standing Crop Total organisms present at a trophic level at one time
Ecological Succession Orderly colonisation of a locality by successive communities of
plants
Climax Community Final stable community established after succession
Biogeochemical Cycle Cycling of elements between biotic and abiotic components
(nutrient cycle)
Food Chain Linear sequence of 'eat and be eaten' from producers to top
consumers
Food Web Interconnected network of food chains in an ecosystem
Grazing Food Chain Begins with living green plants
Detritus Food Chain Begins with dead organic matter; no sunlight dependency
GPP Gross Primary Productivity — total photosynthesis rate
NPP Net Primary Productivity — GPP minus respiration losses
Homeostasis Ecosystem's ability to maintain equilibrium and resist change
Lentic Ecosystem Stagnant water ecosystem (ponds, lakes)
Lotic Ecosystem Running water ecosystem (streams, rivers)
Estuaries Brackish water where rivers meet oceans; high productivity
Provisioning Services Material products from ecosystems (food, water, medicine)
Regulating Services Ecosystem functions that regulate environment (climate, floods,
pollination)
Term Meaning
Ecological Restoration Assisting recovery of degraded ecosystems

Notes prepared from: EVS Study Material — Lessons 2, 3 & 4 | Dr. Nibedita Khuntia & Dr. Sarthak Malhotra, Maharaja
Agrasen College & Dyal Singh College, University of Delhi