1.

4-stroke petrol engine

A four-stroke petrol engine, also known as a spark-ignition engine, completes its power cycle over
two crankshaft revolutions through intake, compression, power, and exhaust strokes. It uses a spark
plug to ignite the compressed air-fuel mixture, producing mechanical work.
Key Components
The main parts include the cylinder, piston, connecting rod, crankshaft, inlet and
exhaust valves, spark plug, and camshaft.
Intake Stroke
The piston moves downward from top dead center (TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC),
opening the inlet valve to draw in the air-petrol mixture via vacuum.
Compression Stroke
Both valves close as the piston rises from BDC to TDC, compressing the mixture to raise
its temperature and pressure for efficient combustion.
Power Stroke
Near TDC, the spark plug ignites the mixture, causing expansion that drives the piston
downward to BDC, generating power to turn the crankshaft.
Exhaust Stroke
The exhaust valve opens, and the piston rises from BDC to TDC, expelling burnt gases
from the cylinder.

2. 2stroke disel engine

TDC is the position where the piston reaches its highest point in the cylinder, closest to the cylinder
head, marking the end of the compression or exhaust stroke. BDC is the lowest point of the piston,
farthest from the cylinder head, at the end of the intake or power stroke.
Role in 2-Stroke Diesel Engine
In a two-stroke diesel engine, the cycle begins at BDC with ports opening for intake and
scavenging air entry, then compresses air moving to TDC where fuel injects and ignites.
Expansion drives the piston back to BDC, uncovering exhaust and scavenge ports for gas
expulsion.
Construction Overview
Key parts include cylinder with scavenge and exhaust ports, piston, crankshaft, fuel
injector (no spark plug), and often a blower for scavenging; no valves are used, unlike
four-stroke designs.
Working Strokes
Upward Stroke (Compression): Piston rises from BDC to TDC, closing ports,
compressing air; fuel injects near TDC for auto-ignition.
Downward Stroke (Power/Exhaust): Combustion expands gases, pushing piston to BDC;
exhaust port opens first, followed by scavenge port for fresh air to sweep out gases.
3 vernier caliper
Vernier calipers provide precise measurements up to 0.1 mm or finer using a
sliding vernier scale aligned with a main scale.
Construction
A vernier caliper consists of a main scale (fixed frame with mm markings), a
movable jaw with vernier scale (10 divisions matching 9 mm on main scale),
fixed jaw, locking screw, depth rod, and thumb screw for sliding.
Working Principle
The least count is 1 MSD - 1 VSD (e.g., 1 mm - 0.9 mm = 0.1 mm), allowing
fractional readings where a vernier line coincides perfectly with a main scale
line.
Measurement Process
• Open jaws and place object between external jaws (or inside for internal
measurement).
 • Slide until snug, lock, then read main scale value left of vernier zero, plus
vernier coincidence value times least count.
• Subtract positive/negative zero error if present (vernier zero
misalignment when jaws closed)

Notes on

Micrometer
A micrometer screw gauge measures small dimensions (0.01 mm accuracy) using a
calibrated screw thread. It features a C-shaped frame, fixed anvil, movable spindle,
sleeve (main scale in 0.5 mm), thimble (50 divisions for 0.01 mm least count), and
ratchet stop for uniform pressure.
Slip Gauges
Slip gauges (gauge blocks) are hardened steel blocks lapped to precise thicknesses
(within millionths of an inch) for use as length standards. They "wring" together via
molecular adhesion to build exact lengths for calibrating micrometers, setting sine bars,
or checking workshop gauges; sets include 1.001-1.009 mm steps and larger
increments.
Dial Gauge
A dial gauge (plunger dial indicator) measures deviations from a reference surface with
0.01-0.001 mm resolution via a geared plunger and circular dial. Mounted on stands, it
checks flatness, roundness, or height by comparing against slip gauge setups—plunger
deflection moves the pointer against a zeroed baseline.
Sine Bar
A sine bar precisely measures or sets angles using two precision rollers spaced a known
distance apart (e.g., 100-300 mm). Place on a surface plate with slip gauges under one
roller; angle θ = arc sin(h/L), where h is gauge height and L is roller centers—ideal for
angle inspection or machine setups.
Ductility, elasticity, strength, and hardness are key mechanical properties of materials
like steel alloys, influencing their suitability for engineering applications.
Ductility
Ductility measures a material's ability to undergo significant plastic deformation under
tensile stress before fracturing, such as being drawn into wires. Metals like copper and
mild steel exhibit high ductility due to their capacity for elongation without rupture.
Elasticity
Elasticity is the property allowing a material to deform under load and return to its
original shape once the load is removed, within the elastic limit. Rubber and spring steel
demonstrate strong elasticity, governed by Hooke's Law where stress is proportional to
strain.
Strength
Strength refers to a material's capacity to withstand applied forces without failure,
including types like tensile, compressive, shear, and yield strength. High-strength
materials resist deformation or breaking under load, critical for structural components.
Hardness
Hardness indicates resistance to surface indentation, scratching, or abrasion, often
tested via Brinell, Rockwell, or Vickers methods. It correlates with wear resistance but
can reduce ductility.
Steel Alloys
Steel alloys combine iron with carbon (up to 2%) and elements like chromium, nickel,
or manganese to enhance properties such as strength, hardness, and corrosion
resistance. Stainless steel (e.g., with chromium) offers high strength and hardness for
tools, while alloy steels balance ductility and toughness for automotive parts.
4
Hardness testing evaluates a material's resistance to permanent deformation,
such as indentation or scratching, providing insights into strength, wear
resistance, and ductility.
Hardness Testing Methods
Common methods include Rockwell (depth measurement with various scales
like HRC for steels), Vickers (diagonal of diamond pyramid indentation), Brinell
(ball indenter diameter), Knoop (elongated diamond for thin coatings), and Leeb
(rebound velocity). Selection depends on material type, thickness, and load
requirements—Rockwell suits quick production tests, while Vickers offers
precision for microstructures.
Brinell Hardness Test
The Brinell test presses a hardened steel or carbide ball (typically 10 mm
diameter) into the material under a heavy load (500-3000 kg) for 10-15 seconds,
then measures the indentation diameter optically. Hardness (BHN) calculates as
2𝑃
load divided by surface area of the indentation: 𝐵𝐻𝑁 = 2 2
, where P is
𝜋𝐷(𝐷−√𝐷 −𝑑 )
load, D is ball diameter, and d is indentation diameter.
Applications and Limitations
Brinell excels for coarse-grained materials like cast irons and forgings but
damages thin or soft samples and lacks precision on hardened steels due to ball
deformation.
5

Hooke's law states that the force needed to extend or compress a spring (or
elastic material) is directly proportional to the extension or compression, within
the elastic limit.
Definition
Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1660, it applies to elastic deformations where the
material returns to its original shape after load removal. The law holds for small
strains, linking atomic/molecular displacements proportionally to applied force.
Mathematical Expression
The core equation is 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥, where 𝐹 is the restoring force, 𝑘 is the spring
constant (stiffness in N/m), and 𝑥 is displacement from equilibrium. The
negative sign indicates the force opposes the displacement direction.
In stress-strain terms (generalized form), stress 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖, with 𝐸 as Young's
modulus.
Applications and Limits
Used in springs, beams, and material testing to calculate elastic behavior, but
fails beyond the proportional limit where permanent deformation (plasticity)
begins.

6
 A stress-strain diagram plots stress (force per unit area) against strain
(deformation per unit length) from a tensile test, revealing a material's
mechanical behavior.
Key Regions
The elastic region follows Hooke's Law with linear stress-strain proportionality
up to the proportional limit; beyond this lies the yield point where plastic
deformation begins. The curve peaks at ultimate tensile strength, then necks
until fracture; ductile materials show significant plastic elongation, unlike brittle
ones.
Important Points
𝜎
• Young's Modulus (E): Slope of elastic portion, measuring stiffness (𝐸 = 𝜖 ).
• Yield Strength: Stress at 0.2% offset where permanent deformation starts.
• Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): Maximum stress before failure

Lathe and drilling machines are fundamental machine tools in manufacturing for
rotational machining operations.
Lathe Machine Construction
Key parts include a rigid bed with guideways, headstock (spindle, chuck, gearbox for
speed/feed control), tailstock (supports long workpieces), carriage (saddle, cross-slide,
compound rest, tool post), lead screw, and apron for feed mechanisms.
Lathe Working Principle
The workpiece rotates between centers or in a chuck via the headstock spindle, while a
single-point cutting tool on the carriage feeds longitudinally (turning), transversely
(facing), or angularly (taper) to remove material symmetrically about the axis.
Drilling Machine Construction
Comprises a base, column (vertical pillar), table (work-holding), spindle head (drill
chuck, motor), and feed handles; types include column, radial, bench, and gang drills.
Drilling Working Principle
A rotating drill bit in the spindle advances perpendicularly into a stationary workpiece
clamped on the table, using multi-point cutting edges to produce holes via axial feed and
chip removal through flutes

8
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
transferred or converted, expressed as Δ𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊, where Δ𝑈 is the change in internal
energy, Q is heat added to the system, and W is work done by the system.
First Law Details
It enforces conservation of energy for thermodynamic systems; for a gas in a piston,
heat input increases internal energy or enables expansion work. Applies to closed
systems without mass transfer.
All Laws of Thermodynamics
Zeroth Law: If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are in
equilibrium with each other, defining temperature.
Second Law: Entropy of an isolated system always increases; heat cannot spontaneously
flow from cold to hot.
Third Law: Entropy approaches a minimum (zero for perfect crystals) as temperature
nears absolute zero.
Law Statement Key Implication
Zeroth Thermal equilibrium Temperature scale
transitivity
First Δ𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 Energy conservation
Second Entropy increase Direction of
processes
Third Entropy at 0 K Absolute zero limit

>

Thermodynamic systems are defined regions of matter and energy under study,
separated from surroundings by a boundary that governs exchanges.
Open System
An open system exchanges both matter and energy with its surroundings. Examples
include a boiling pot (steam escapes) or a turbine engine (air and fuel enter, exhaust
leaves).
Closed System
A closed system permits energy transfer (heat or work) but no matter exchange. A
sealed piston-cylinder assembly heating up exemplifies this.
Isolated System
An isolated system blocks both matter and energy transfer, maintaining constant
internal energy. Idealized thermos flasks approximate this, though perfect isolation is
theoretical.
Type Matter Exchange Energy Exchange Example
Open Yes Yes Boiling water
Closed No Yes Sealed gas cylinder
Isolated No No Perfect vacuum
flask
10

Boiler mountings are essential safety devices fitted directly to the boiler shell for
safe operation, while accessories enhance efficiency but are not mandatory for
safety.
Boiler Mountings
These include safety valves (release excess pressure), water level indicator
(monitors drum level via gauge glass), pressure gauge (measures steam
pressure), fusible plug (melts to prevent overheating), blow-off cock (removes
sediments), feed check valve (controls one-way feed water flow), and steam stop
valve (regulates steam outlet).
Boiler Accessories
Accessories improve performance: economizer (preheats feed water using flue
gases), superheater (raises steam temperature above saturation), air preheater
(heats incoming air), feed pump (supplies water), and steam separator (removes
moisture from steam).
Category Examples Function
Mountings Safety valve, fusible plug Safety and monitoring
Accessories Economizer, superheater Efficiency
enhancement

11

Hydraulic turbines convert the kinetic and potential energy of flowing water into
mechanical energy to drive generators for electricity production.
Construction and Types
Key components include a scroll casing (volute) to direct water uniformly, guide
vanes (regulate flow), runner (blades or buckets where energy transfer occurs),
and draft tube. Types are impulse (Pelton wheel for high head) and reaction
(Francis, Kaplan for medium/low head), classified by head height, flow direction,
and specific speed.
Working Principle
Water from a reservoir enters the casing, accelerates through guide vanes, and
strikes runner blades, changing momentum per Newton's laws to produce
torque on the shaft. Reaction turbines use both pressure and velocity drop across
the runner.
Draft Tube Function
The draft tube connects the runner outlet to the tailrace, recovering kinetic
energy from exiting water via diffusion (velocity to pressure conversion) and
allowing the turbine to operate below tailwater level (draft head) for higher
efficiency

12

1. Mechanical Properties of Materials

Mechanical properties determine material behavior under external loads. Key
properties include:
Elasticity: Ability to return to original shape after deformation within elastic
limit (Hooke's Law: σ = Eε). Young's modulus (E) measures stiffness.
Ductility: Permanent deformation before fracture (measured by %
elongation/reduction in area). Mild steel: >20% elongation.
Strength: Maximum stress before failure:
• Tensile strength: Max engineering stress
• Yield strength: Onset of plastic deformation (0.2% offset)
• Compressive/shear strength
Hardness: Resistance to indentation (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers scales).
Toughness: Energy absorption before fracture (area under stress-strain curve).
Brittleness: Sudden fracture without deformation (cast iron).
Fatigue strength: Resistance to cyclic loading.
2. Classification of Engineering Materials
A. By Chemical Composition:
• Metals: Ferrous (Fe-base), Non-ferrous (Al, Cu, Mg)
• Non-metals: Polymers, Ceramics, Composites
B. By Structure:
• Crystalline (metals), Amorphous (glass), Semi-crystalline (polymers)
C. By Applications:
• Structural (steels), Refractory (tungsten), Electrical (copper), Magnetic
(iron-silicon)
D. Advanced Classification:
• Smart materials (piezoelectric, shape memory)
• Nanomaterials
 • Biomaterials
3. Steel Alloys and Applications
Steel: Fe-C alloys (0.02-2.1% C) + alloying elements.
Classification:
• Plain Carbon Steels: Low (<0.3%C), Medium (0.3-0.6%), High (>0.6%)
• Alloy Steels: Ni, Cr, Mo, V additions
• Stainless Steels: >12% Cr (austenitic 304, ferritic 430, martensitic 410,
duplex)
Applications:

text
Low C Steel: Rivets, sheets, wires
Medium C: Rails, gears, axles
High C: Springs, dies, tools
Tool Steel: Cutting tools, drills
Stainless: Chemical plants, cutlery
HSLA Steel: Bridges, pipelines
4. Cast Iron Classification
Grey CI: Graphite flakes → machinable, damping (engine blocks).
White CI: Fe3C → hard, wear-resistant (chilled rolls).
Ductile/SG Iron: Spheroidal graphite → tough, ductile (crankshafts).
Malleable CI: Tempered white CI → ductile (pipe fittings).
Compacted Graphite Iron: Intermediate properties (engine blocks).
Properties Table:

text
Type | Graphite | Tensile | Application
--------|----------|---------|------------
Grey | Flakes | 200MPa | Machine base
White | - | 300MPa | Rolls
Ductile | Nodules | 600MPa | Gears
6. Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Key Reactions:
• Peritectic: 1493°C, 0.17%C (δ→γ+Fe3C)
• Eutectic: 1148°C, 4.3%C (L→γ+Fe3C)
• Eutectoid: 727°C, 0.77%C (γ→α+Fe3C)
Phases:
• Ferrite (α): BCC, soft, up to 0.02%C
• Austenite (γ): FCC, 0.8-2%C, 912-1394°C
• Cementite (Fe3C): Hard, brittle
• Pearlite: Lamellar α+Fe3C
Regions: Hypo-eutectoid (<0.77%C), Hyper-eutectoid (>0.77%C).
7. Boiler Construction and Working
Fire Tube Boilers (Cochran, Lancashire):
• Hot gases through tubes surrounded by water
• Low pressure (<20 bar), stationary
Water Tube Boilers (Babcock-Wilcox, Stirling):
 • Water in tubes, gases outside
• High pressure (100+ bar), rapid steam
Mountings (Safety):
• Safety valve (spring-loaded)
• Water level indicator (gauge glass)
• Pressure gauge
• Fusible plug (melts at 220°C)
• Blowdown valve
Accessories (Efficiency):
• Economizer (feed water heating)
• Superheater (dry steam)
• Air preheater
8. Reciprocating Pump
Construction: Cylinder, piston, suction/discharge valves, crank, connecting rod.
Working:

text
Suction Stroke: Piston moves back → pressure drops → suction valve opens
Delivery Stroke: Piston forward → discharge valve opens
Characteristics: High head, low discharge, pulsating flow.
𝑃 𝑉 +𝑃 𝑉
Work done/cycle: 𝑊 = 1 1 2 2 2 (theoretical).
9. Viscosity & Newton's Law; Pascal's Law
Viscosity (μ): Internal friction resisting shear.
𝑑𝑢
Newton's Law: 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 (shear stress ∝ velocity gradient).
Types: Dynamic (kg/ms), Kinematic (m²/s).
Pascal's Law: Pressure in static fluid transmits undiminished in all directions.
Applications: Hydraulics (P1A1 = P2A2).
11. Bernoulli's Theorem
Statement: For steady, incompressible, inviscid flow along streamline:
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑉 2 + 𝜌𝑔h = constant
2
Applications: Venturimeter, Pitot tube, orifice meter.
2Δ𝑃
𝑄=𝐴1 𝐴2√
𝜌(1−(𝐴2 /𝐴1)2 )
Venturimeter:
12. Centrifugal Compressor
Construction: Impeller, diffuser, volute casing, shaft.
Working:
• Radial acceleration by impeller
• Diffusion → pressure rise
• Volute collects flow
Pressure ratio: 4:1 per stage.
Applications: Gas turbines, refrigeration.
13. Draft Tube in Turbine
Function:
• Converts K.E. to pressure energy (diffuser)
 • Allows runner below tail water (suction head)
𝑉22 −𝑉32
Efficiency: 𝜂𝑑 = (velocity at runner exit/inlet).
𝑉22
Types: Conical, elbow, Moody spreading.
14. Steam Engine
Types: Simple, compound, uniflow, Woolf.
Working (Double-acting):

text
Steam admits both sides alternately
Expansion → piston motion
Exhaust through ports
h −h
Rankine efficiency: 𝜂 = 1 − h2−h1.
3 4

16. Alloy Elements in Steel

text
Element | Effect | % Range | Applications
--------|--------|---------|------------
C | Hardness| 0.1-1.5 | All steels
Cr | Corrosion|12-18 | SS, tools
Ni | Toughness| 2-5 | HSLA
Mn | Strength | 0.3-1.5| Rails
Mo | Creep | 0.2-0.5| Turbines
V | Refinement|0.1-0.3| Tools
Si | Elasticity|0.2-2.0| Springs
17. Hardness Testing
2𝑃
Brinell: 𝐵𝐻𝑁 = (10mm ball, 3000kg).
𝜋𝐷(𝐷−√𝐷2 −𝑑 2 )
Rockwell: Depth measurement (HRC scale).
1.854𝑃
Vickers: 𝐻𝑉 = 𝑑2 (diamond pyramid).
18. Fluid Properties
text
Property | Definition | Units
---------|------------|------
Density | Mass/volume| kg/m³
Viscosity| Shear resistance | Pa.s
Surface tension| Cohesive force | N/m
Compressibility| ΔV/V per ΔP | 1/Pa
Vapor pressure| Boiling tendency| Pa
19. Measurement Error
Types:
• Gross: Carelessness
• Systematic: Calibration error, parallax
• Random: Statistical variation
Minimization: Calibration, multiple readings, standards.
20. Measuring Instruments
text
Instrument | Range | Least Count | Use
-----------|-------|-------------|----
Vernier | 0-150mm| 0.02mm | External/internal
Micrometer| 0-25mm| 0.01mm| Precision diameter
Dial gauge| 0-25mm| 0.01mm| Flatness
Slip gauge| 1-100mm| 0.001mm| Standards
Sine bar | - | 1"/100mm | Angles
Welding:
• Arc: SMAW, SAW, MIG, TIG
• Gas: Oxy-acetylene
• Resistance: Spot, seam
• Defects: Porosity, cracks, incomplete fusion
Casting:
• Processes: Sand, die, investment, centrifugal
• Defects: Misrun, cold shut, shrinkage, blow holes
Heat Engine Efficiency:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = =1−
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛
Carnot Cycle:
𝑇𝐿
𝜂𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1 −
𝑇𝐻
(Processes: Isothermal expansion, adiabatic expansion, isothermal compression,
adiabatic compression).