MODULE 2

LANGUAGE and COMMUNITY

At the end of this module students are expected to be

able to:

• Define a language, and language

• Describe the characteristics of language

• Know the purpose of language

• Define dialect and Creole

• Have a concept of Creole history in the West Indian context

(influence of colonisers)

• Identify the characteristics of Creole languages

• Identify the differences between Creole and Standard English

• Identify the points on the Creole Continuum (Acrolect, Mesolect

and Basilect)

• Identify and define registers

 Languages live, die, move from place to place, and change with
Identify the attitudes that persons develop and display toward
Language time. Any language that stops changing begins to die and any language
that is a living language is in a state of continuous change.
Identify types of communication technologies and their impact Listed below are some of the properties common to almost all
on communication
languages.
• Dynamic - Language is dynamic as it tends to change through time
according to the needs of the society, or randomly. Any diachronic
analysis is the proof for the dynamic nature of language.
72 A language and language • Creative - There is no dear cut limitation for the creativeness of
human language. Human beings can produce infinite number of
A language is a system made up of arbitrary symbols and rules sentences or unlimited utterances by making use of finite number
(grammar) that humans use to communicate with each other. A of structures in language or rules in grammar.
language can also be specific to a particular community. Language • Communication of information - Language is used for transference
on the other hand is the broad term which refers to the use of the of information and content of knowledge from an individual to
~housa~ds of all such systems as a general phenomenon. Language another or from one generation to the next.
IS consIdered to be an exclusively human mode of communication; • Interpersonal relations - Language is the primary source for
although animals make use of quite sophisticated communicative the continuation of a society and each individual necessarily uses
systems, none of these are known to make use of all of the properties language to be a part of any social group or to build interpersonal
that lin~uists use to define language. Although language is primarily relations and rapport.
spoken It can also be written. • verbal and non-verbal - In addition to verbal signs, human
People over the years have attempted to define language in a language includes non-verbal signs which we generally name as
number of ways. Some examples of definitions include: body language, but it covers more than this. Areas of study like
• A system for representing things actions, ideas and states para-linguistics, proxemics, and kinesics analyze this aspect of
• A tool that people use to communicate their concepts of reality language.
• A system of meanings shared among people • Community specific - The signs and codes of language are unique
• A code that members of a linguistic community use to mediate to a particular community. In this respect, the term "culture" is
between form and meaning avoided; since a specific culture may not be always homogeneous.
• A set of grammatically correct utterances i.e. words and sentences However, the term community covers any sort of social group.
• A set of. utterances that could be understood by a linguistic • Arbitrary - The nature of the linguistic sign is arbitrary in that
communtty any symbol can be mapped onto any concept because there is no
• Thought relation between the signifier e.g. chair and the signified e.g. the
chair itself Another example of the arbitrary nature of language
73 Properties or characteristics of language can be seen in the Spanish word "nada", there is absolutely nothing
about the Spanish word "nada" itself that forces Spanish speakers
The complex nature oflanguage itself allows it to have many properties. to use it to mean "nothing" and yet that is the meaning all Spanish
A common p~ogression of natural languages is that they are first spoken, speakers have been taught and memorized for that sound pattern.
and then wntten and finally understanding and explanation of their On the other hand "nada" means "hope" for Croatian speakers.
grammar is attempted.
 It must be understood however, that just because in principle the simple needs and wants. As you grew older your instrumental language
symbols are arbitrary this does not mean that a language cannot have decreased taking the forms of polite requests or forceful' persuasion.
symbols that are iconic of what they stand for. Onomatopoeic words Appropriate and effective use ofinstrumentallanguage in conversation,
such as "meow" "swish" "hiss" and "buzz" sound similar to what telephone usage, and in writing is important for skillful language use.
they represent. Regulatory when you use it to control the behaviors of others
or get them to do what you want them to do. Regulatory language
74 Functions or roles of language may include giving orders or at more subtle levels, manipulating and
controlling others. This kind of language is often used in competitive
The first function of human language is to allow persons to think game situation in which there is a rule-governed "right" answer. E.g.'
or reflect. Simply put language allows for reflection. Reflection The Price is Right and Family Feud Television Game Shows. Positive
distinguishes human beings from animals. As humans we are able regulatory language is one of the "life skills" that every parent, shop
. to use our reflective powers to both recall good and bad and ensure owner, foreman, or administrator must know. The student who is
that we avoid past bad experiences. the Prefect or Head Girl or Boy will be called upon daily to practice
The second function of language allows us to be expressive in regulatory language in the exercise of his or her duties.
our joys, sorrows, pain, anxiety, solidarity and frustration. Interactional when it is used to establish and define social
Basically this function of language unleashes our emotions. relationships. It may include negotiations, encouragement, expressions .
The third function of human language is the most important of friendships, and the kind of "maintenance" language we all use
as it is used for communicating our ideas, information and in group situations. The'setting', 'joking', 'ole talk' and 'small talk'
our thoughts. All these can be communicated in the forms of that adults often do before a meeting begins is also an example of
statements, commands and questions. interactional language. Because adults who are effective in building
The fourth function of language is that of using it in passing on social relationships are most likely to succeed, children need to develop
traditions and rituals. Through the passing of these traditions and a comfortable awareness of their ability to use language to establish
rituals individuals are afforded the opportunity to be recognized as relationships with other people, to work cooperatively with them, and
members of a particular community or society. to enjoy their companionship.
A fifth function of language is that it may be used as an identity Personal Language when it is used to express your individuality
marker. For example when one listens to an individual's speech and personality. Strong feelings and opinions are part of your personal
one can sometimes identify the region or country he is from, what language. Personal language is often neglected in classrooms and
status he occupies in society and even what type of school that thought of as being inappropriate. Yet it is through personal language
person attended.
that you are able to relate your own life experiences to the subject
A sixth function oflanguage is that it has historically been used as matter being taught and in so doing establish your own identity, build
a cultural identity marker. The language you speak can indicate your self esteem and confidence.
and reveal a lot of information about your country of origin. Imaginative Language when it is used to create a world of one's
own, to express fantasy through dramatic play, drama, poetry or stories.
This use oflanguage flourishes in the kindergarten or pre-school where
you can find play house corners, baskets of old clothes, big blocks and
Instrumental when you use it to get what you want and to satisfy toys. Unless it is fostered, imaginative language will rapidly disappear in
your needs or desires. As children little intervention was needed to later years. Its importance cannot be underestimated, especially when
elicit instrumental language from you as you used it to satisfy your we consider how difficult it is for some teachers to get students to
 produce imaginative work. Poetry, stories and drama are all the result
of your active use of the imaginative language.
Heuristic Language when it is used to explore the environment
around you, to investigate the unknown, to acquire knowledge and ''in the classroom we all learned past participles, but in the
understanding from the many different sources available. Heuristic streets and in our homes the Blacks learned to drop ss from
~anguage is for investigating, for wondering, for figuring out things. It plurals and suffixes from past-tense verbs. UIe were alert to the
IS the language of inquiry and is one of the most important functions gap separating the written word from the colloquial UIe learned
of language on the whole. to slide out of one language and into another without being
Informative Language when it is used to communicate conscious of the effort. At school, in a given situation, we might
information, to report facts or conclusions derived from facts. respond with "Thats not unusual." But in the street, meeting
!nf~rm~tive language is the language of schools and other learning the same situation, we easily said, '1t bes like that sometimes. "
Insotuoons. Educators use it most frequently and require it of'their
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Maya Angelou
students.
(Chapter 29)

Summary of descriptions of language

Instrumental A dialect can be defined as any variety of a language characteristic of

a particular group of the language's speakers. The term is applied most
Regulatory
often to regional factors, but it can also be defined by other factors
Interactional such as geographical, ethnic, socio-economic or gender groups speech
patterns. Some examples of dialects are British Standard English,
Personal
.
Imaginative
Cockney English, Trinidad Standard English, Jamaican Standard
English, American Standard English and Yorkshire English .
A lesser-known language, especially one that is unwritten or not
Heuristic standardized is also usually referred as a dialect. This use of the word
dialect is often taken as pejorative by the speakers of the languages
Informative referred to, since it is often accompanied by the erroneous belief that the
minority language is lacking in vocabulary, grammar or importance.
In every language the dialects distinguish one social group from
76 Language and identity
the next, for example the dialect of tlle upper class is different from
There is ~o question that langu~ge is not only crucial, but probably that of the lower class. In most cases the dialect of the upper class in
also the sIngle most critical factor in the construction of one's identity. any community is given the highest prestige and that of the lower class
Language does not only identify the specific country, island or region is given the lowest.
that [Link] comes from but also gives one a social identity. For example in To most persons who were not exposed to linguistics, dialect
most Instances whether rightly or wrongly, a listener attaches not only refers to a non-standard variety of English that only the poor, the
a country or region but a social status to a speaker from just hearing uneducated and country folks speak.
his use or command of language.
 A sociolect is a dialect that is associated with a particular social class
of people. Other speech varieties include: standard languages, jargons,
slangs, patois and pidgins. A dialect is distinguished by its particular • Because many persons within a community will be better able to
vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. Where a distinction can be understand each other if they use the same standard dialect
made only in terms of pronunciation, the term accent is appropriate, • Standard dialect maybe perpetuated in an effort by the powers
not dialect although both these terms are used synonymously and that be to stifle any sense of diversity which in some societies are a
interchangeably. perceived threat to their idea of national unity.
If two forms of speech are so very different that their speakers • Sometimes in the effort to standardize one dialect over another
cannot understand each other, they are called different languages; if the result is that the group or groups whose dialects were not
however they can understand what each other is saying, then they are standardized are excluded from power. Simply put the purpose of
called different dialects. standardization may be seen by persons as a way to exclude certain
sections of the society from power.

Every language spoken has one or many dialects

Therefore in most cases if not all, every speaker of every language • Solely because they are not literary languages.
is also bilingual . • Because the speakers of the given language do not have a state of
Every speaker of every language speaks with an accent because their own
accent is based solely on the way the speaker pronounces the • Because they are not used in press or literature, or are used very
words. little.
• Because their language lacks prestige.
Standard and non-standard dialects Modern-day linguists know that the status oflanguage is not solely
determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical
A standard dialect which is also referred to as a standardized dialect and political development.
or standard language is a dialect that is supported by important
institutions. Such institutional support may come from government's
recognition or designation or presentation of the standard form as
being the "correct", "good", "proper" form of a language. This standard
dialect will be used in schools, published grammars, dictionaries, and
textbooks. As a result of this standardization of a preferred dialect, In the Caribbean we use the phrase "Standard English" loosely when
persons develop either an attitude of acceptance or non acceptance, we are identifying the chosen standard form over the regional standard
superiority or inferiority, appropriateness or inappropriateness for this form of English. However, even our Standard form has within it a bit of
standard form based on their own lived experiences.
regional influence and as such one is completely correct to use the term
A non-standardized dialect, like a standard language, has a Trinidad Standard English or Jamaican Standard English.
complete vocabulary, grammar and syntax, but it is not the beneficiary The spoken standard has become associated with education.
of any institutional support that is needed to place it on par with the In general the perception is that the higher a person's standard of
standard dialect.
education the better that person's command of the Standard English
without regional and social characteristics. This occurs because the
 written standard found in schoolbooks does not include many regional • Standard English is the main language used in the media, In
. or social features and if it does it is not a regular occurrence; This schools and public places
association does not mean that the spoken standard is more correct
than speech with regional or social characteristics. However, standard
language is perceived as usually more appropriate and acceptable in
formal situations because many people have corne to expect it on these
occasions.
The standard language has the status which comes with social
prestige, education, and wealth, the Creole or dialect on the other A lexifier is the language from which a particular Creole language
hand has no such status, its roots lie in a history of slavery and derives the majority of its vocabulary.
subservience. These languages were originally held in low regard, often referred
to as broken or bastardized forms of their European lexifiers, This view
is so ingrained that even today it is easy to find many speal{ers of creoles
who do not consider them real languages, but dialects. Arguably many
Used mainly in formal contexts of them are grammatically distinct enough to be considered different
Can be delivered either orally or written with the latter being the languages, though they may lack standardized spelling (orthography)
dominant and grammar. The main reason for this is that they were initially used
More complex as it contains grammar and syntax for daily communication and did not develop in comparison with
Wide variety of both regional idioms and pronunciations non-Creole languages.
A recognized dictionary containing standardized spelling and The definition of the term Creole that is often considered most
vocabulary suitable is a language with a pidgin in its ancestry, which is spoken as
A recognized grammar which records the forms, rules and structures a native language by the majority of its speech community. Pidgins
of the language are languages which have developed under the circumstances where
A standard system of pronunciation· which is considered by the two linguistic systems collide and merge, but for some reason have not
majority of the population as "educated" or "proper" speech acquired native speakers. This does not imply that creoles are necessarily
The official language used in the making of laws and constitutions more developed languages than pidgins, merely that there was perhaps
thus giving it legal status wider dispersal of linguistic communities or some other pressure to
Mainly used in public life such as in the courts, churches, and most abandon native languages in situations of creolization greater than that
public institutions !n situations of pidginization.
To translate sacred texts such as the Bible
Teaching of grammar and spelling in schools

In the Caribbean context, the term Creole is sometimes quite fuzzy,

but, most times Creole language refers to the languages that have
Standard is internationally ac<::epted evolved as a result of the Europeans who colonized our islands during
Standard English is governed by grammar, phonological, syntactic, the period of slavery and beyond. Our unique Caribbean languages
and morphological rules therefore, can be mixtures of Spanish and West African, British English
Standard English can be written
and West African and French and all of the other existing languages of • My mother just love nuts cake
• We does cook peas soup every Saturday
our European colonizers.
All of the recognized Creoles of our region have vocabularies that
~ In Trinidadian Creole the habitual action is shown by the use
are overtly and predominantly drawn from some other European
language. Caribbean Creole languages have continued to co-exist with of ,does' before the verb in the sentence.
the European languages that have official statuses in our region. Thus • She does talk too much
Caribbean creoles are typically categorized as being Dutch-based,
~ In Creole verbs do not change to accommodate the English rule
English based, French based and Spanish based.
of subject- verb agreement.
• The man walk to work every day
• The teacher walk to school every day
All Caribbean Creole languages have elements of syntax:, semantics
~ In Creole, speakers use the words 'much' and 'amount of' with
and phonology. All of these creoles show similarities to those languages
any countable and uncountable noun to express quantity.
of the slaves from West Africa. As a result of these similarities there
are common linguistic features within the Caribbean creoles despite • Look at how much mango on the tree.
• If you see the amount of persons who died in the
their base language. Some features of English-based creoles in the
Caribbean which can be attributed to linguistic differences or a person's cyclone
perception:
~ In Creole, nouns that are always plural in Standard English
~ The most common plural marker's' in Standard English is
shown differently in Creole. are used as both singular and plural.
• Mary and dem went out • Jenny brought a scissors to school.
• When she opened the door he was holding a flowers.
• Can you look at these book?
• We have plenty orange on our tree
~ In Creole it is very common to place the verb before the
• My mom bought s~me book for me
• Ben has ten marble in his bag noun.
• The market have a set of fruit in it these days. • It have mauby in the kitchen.
Each of these sentences contains a plural noun, but in Creole there is • Look the band coming.
no's' ending as is the rule in English.
~ In Creole there is a high level of difficulty in establishing 'could
~ Creole speakers express possessive nouns differently; the owner have' and 'should have' in creole 'could of and 'should of and
. is placed directly before that which is owned. pronounced as 'coudda' and 'shoudda'
• The man coudda walk yesterday (Conditional instead of
• We are going to my uncle house
• "John, can you bring Mark shoe for him?" Past Tense)
• That is the man book • She coudda do better than that.
• You should of known better
~ Acceptable forms of Creole
~ In Creole, the future tense is always formed by placing either
• She sat in the ants nest.
'go', 'going', 'going to', 'going' or 'would' before the verb.
• I love your flowers garden.
 • I go call you tomorrow. ~ Dropping the g' in the Participle form of words such as
• We going to go town in the morning. 'running' becomes 'runnin', 'jumping' becomes 'jumpin', and
• Jenny going and buy the drinks tomorrow. 'playing' becomes 'playin'.
• I would come back next week.
~ The silencing of the end consonant of words such as 'kind',
~ In Creole, the word 'did' is used in place of ,was' and likewise 'last: 'find', 'bend: 'hand: 'band: 'mild: 'child', and 'friend'.
'was' can be used with any subject. E.g. The bline man wanted to cross the street, so the kine chile took
• I did get here early. his han to help him.
• They was here early
• She was with he all the time. ~ Th e insertion 0f"·y In suc h wor d s as car, can,'t'C gas'c cattL'e,
(J (

• We was coming home when we crash. gang', 'candle,' 'Caroni: 'cash: 'catch'and 'cat'. E.g My sister drove
her new cyar to Cyaroni and she run out of gyas.
~ Some common Creole formations
~ Having no verb in the statement e.g. John so sick he cyar go to
• We eh going tomorrow. Ceh' instead of 'are not')
school.
• You eh hear you mother call you? CYou eh' instead of
'Didn't you')
~ The Adjective functions as the Verb and predicate in sentences
• You going to the market? (Statement formed as a
e.g. The dog big.
question)
• Ent you going to the market?
• Mary doesn't want no mangoes. (Double negatives)
• They doesn't walk with we anymore. (The Habitual
~ Using musi instead of 'might be able' e.g. He musi able to carry
form)
that load.
• The house does get clean every weekend (The Passive
Voke in the Present Tense)
~ In Creole, Calques are combinations of words that help to
• The house clean yesterday. ( The Past Tense) achieve specialized words such as 'hard-headed', 'sweet-mout",
• The house go get clean on Friday. (Future Tense) 'big-eye', 'knock-knee', 'han'-to-mout", 'male-doctor', 'female-driver',
• Is wait, we waiting for the bus. ( Present Continuous 'fish-man', 'bird-man', 'red-woman', 'water-carrier', "doubles man", I
Tense) ''papers lady"
[I'
I.
: ~::.::'::-.
• We waiting on the bus. (Present Continuous Tense)
• We was waiting a long time for the bus. (Past ~ In Creole, repetition of words such as 'holey-holey', 'big-big',
Continuous) 'little-little' is a common occurrence whenever the speaker
wanted emphasis.
~ Replacing the 'h'with 'd' wherever there are the consonants 'th'.
These will include such words as 'there,' 'them: 'these: 'the: 'they:
'that,"h ten, "h t ose,"htan, "h"w 7, wh en ' an d' wh'at e.g. Someone
dere have de new pen dat my mudder give me dis morning. • Creole is the language of the lower class, uneducated, powerless,
country folks, and persons whose ancestors were African slaves in
the Caribbean
• Creole is the language of comedy
FRENCH Guadeloupe French Lexicon
• Creole cannot be written as there is no consensus on an official
written form Creole
• Creole language varies from island to island FRENCH Martinique French Lexicon
• Creole has little or no prestige Creole
• Creole is often seen as 'sub-standard' and 'inferior'
FRENCH arid Haiti French Lexicon
• Creole is stigmatized as a 'bad' or 'improper' way of speaking
HAITIAN Creole
ENGLISH StLucia French Lexicon English
89 Similar words used in British English, American
Creole Lexicon
English and Creole Creole

British English American English ENGLISH Dominica French Lexicon English

Creole
Creole Lexicon
Creole
Lorry Truck Van
ENGLISH Belize English Spanish,
Holidays Vacation Holidays/vacation Garifuna,
Lexicon Creole
Cab Taxi-cab Taxilcar Mayan
Gas Petrol Gas ENGLISH Anguilla English French
Lexicon Creole Lexicon
Settee Couch Couch Creole
Booth Trunk Car Trunk ENGLISH Antigua English
Lexicon Creole
ENGLISH Barbuda English
90 Creole and their geographical distributions
Lexicon Creole
OFFICIAL COUNTRY 'POPULAR OTHER ENGLISH Cariacou English
LANGUAGES LANGUAGES LANGUAGES Lexicon Creole
SPANISH Cuba Spanish ENGLISH Grenada English
SPANISH Puerto Rico Lexicon Creole
English/
Spanish ENGLISH Guyana English Arawakan,
SPANISH Lexicon Creole Cariban,
Santo Spanish
Warrau
Domingo
FRENCH ENGLISH Jamaica English
French French Lexicon
Lexicon Creole
Guiana Creole
 several intermediary levels, known as mesolects. In the Caribbean,
ENGLISH Nevis English French Guyanese Creole English and Jamaican Creole English are often cited
.
Lexicon Creole Lexicon as examples of creoles which are undergoing this phenomenon, while
Creole the Barbadian Creole English is said to have virtually merged with
ENGLISH Petit English Standard British English. In Jamaican Creole, for example, one might
Martinique Lexicon Creole hear the basilectal phrase -:
"mi nah call no name" and in a different context, one might hear
ENGLISH St Kitts English
its acrolectal equivalent -
"Ihave not called any name"
Lexicon Creole
The continuum model represents a continuous spectrum of
ENGLISH St Vincent English varieties where it is very difficult to find any noticeable difference
Lexicon Creole between the Creole and standard language.
ENGLISH Trinidad English
&Tobago Lexicon Creole ACROLECT

DUTCH Suriname English Hindi, Urdu I

MESOLECT
Lexicon Javanese,
Creoles Sranan, Amerindian I
BASILECT
Tongo, Ndjuka Languages
Saramaccan,

DUTCH Aruba Papiamento Spanish,

English

DUTCH Bonaire Papiamento Spanish,

. English Language Registers can be defined as the kind of language that is
appropriate to a particular situation or context. Registers refer to the
DUTCH Curacao Papiamento Spanish,
levels of formality or informality and the tones that are correct for a
English
specific context. A register can also refer to either the written or spoken
language. In deciding what is appropriate for any given situation one
has to consider such factors as:
• The audience for which your information is targeted
• The subject matter or topic that you are speaking or writing
In sociolinguistics a language continuum is said to exist when two or
more different languages or dialects merge into the other(s) without a about
definable boundary. • The medium which can be verbal or non-verbal
• The writer's attitude towards the information that he is sharing
It is usually the case that there is not one standard variety of the
Creole language to which all speakers conform, but that there is a • The purpose of your communication
continuum of varieties, ranging from the least lexifler-like and often
Most languages have five (5) registers or language styles. When
least socially prestigious variety, known as the basi/ect to the most
persons are not familiar with registers they mistakenly treat every
lexifier-like and highly prestigious variety known as the acrolect, with
 situation or person the same way, not realizing one's eventual choice of have as many sources as there are lifetime experiences. Some of these
register is made only after considering these factors. reactions, if not most, are entirely superficial and subjective. It does
not take much reflection to realize how many times one hears someone
say, for example: "I hate people from small islands. ""I don't like the
Grenadians." "German/Germans sound harsh." "I love French ... it's
Frozen Register: Used in print and public media, sermons, Pledges, so romantic ... the language of love." "Americans can be so bossy." "I
prayers, Pteamble to the Constitution for which the reader/listener just love the British accent." There is not even the realization that there
is not expected to respond. The language of this register is fixed and are as many 'British' accents as there are regions and sub-regions. Of
unchanged. course "I hate the French," can easily lead to negative perceptions of a
Formal or Academic Register: Used in formal social settings French speaker. .
such as interviews. It is the language of seminars and lectures, Many of the attitudes that persons display towards the varieties of
ceremonies, public speaking and conversation between strangers. English spoken in the Caribbean result from historical, political, social
The Formal register almost always involves the use of Standard and cultural factors. In most cases people's attitudes are formed from
English.
their perceptions of using creole, dialect or Standard English. Their
Consultative Register: Used in situations where the listener is attitudes may range from pride, confidence and celebration to shame,
expected to give some form of feedback based on the information resentment, ridicule and contempt for any choice of language.
provided by the speaker. Examples of this type of register take place
between clients and lawyer, doctor, and counselor.
Casual or Informal Register: Used when talking with friends
and acquaintances in a non-formal setting. This register is usually Speakers of more than one language (e.g. bilinguals) are known for their
recognized by the slangs used.
ability to code-switch or mix their languages during communication.
Intimate Register: This is the language of lovers and persons This phenomenon occurs when bilinguals substitute a word or phrase
who are very close. It is also the language that is used in sexual from one language with a phrase or word from another language.
harassment. Usually marked by specialized words or expressions only Traditionally, code-switching has been viewed as a strategy to
understood by the parties involved in the intimate relationship compensate for diminished language proficiency. The premise behind
this theory is that bilinguals code-switch because they do not know
either language completely. Code-switching was also seen as a sign of
a speaker's lack of confidence and pride in one's choice oflanguage or
94 Attitudes to language mother tongue.
The notion that people code-switch as a strategy in order to be
In this section, the focus is on one-to-one interactions, on how one better understood and to enhance the listeners' comprehension is
person might react to others, and they to him or her, based on their anotper plausible alternative.
language, languages, linguistic variants, dialects and individual
linguistic situations.
What is it that you think or what perceptions come to mind when
you listen to someone speaking a language that is not yours or a This refers to the impressions about the speaker that are communicated
'foreign' language? The feelings that are triggered may be classified as to the listener. The speaker may be quite unaware of these impressions.
preconceptions, prejudiced - negative or positive - reactions that can Behaviors can be communicated through a speaker's:
• Vocalics or paralangue - speaker's use of the volume, rate, tone 98 Types of oral communication
and pitch of voice. For example a speaker who delivers a speech at
0 Conversations
a fast rate might relay to the listener that he is nervous. In the same
0 Interviews
way a speaker whose speech is delivered in a flat almost monotone
0 Meetings
voice can communicate to his listeners that he is bored and would
0 Conferences
rather be anywhere but there.
0 Presentations
• Proxemics - speaker's use of space as he tries to deliver his message.
0 Workshops
For example a speaker may stand holding on to the lectern for dear
0 Seminars
life and never utilizes the space on the stage. This behavior may be
0 Briefings
interpreted as one of fear.
0 Telephone/mobile phone calls
• Artifacts - the speaker's use of objects can also relate a message. For
0 Audio and teleconferencing
example the speaker who is wearing a tie pin that is the symbol of
0 Video conferencing
his country's national flag can be seen as having deep nationalistic
pride.
• Movement and facial expression - a speaker's use of facial
expressions, hand gestures, postur~ and eye contact in his speech.
o Facial expressions
For example the scowl on a speaker's face can be interpreted as one
o Hand movements
of disgust.
o Body gestures and positions
• Chronemic - the speaker's attitude and use of time says something
about him. For example a speaker may turn up twenty-five minutes
late for his speaking engagement. This behavior may be seen as
unprofessional.
It must be understood that communicative behaviors are basically o The human voice, face and body
o Computers, fax machines, telex, videos, televisions, audio
expressed through a speaker's non-verbal communication and may not
cassettes, slides, laptops, photocopiers, web cameras,
always be the correct interpretations.
digital cameras, flash drives, DVD, CD players, posters,
bulletins and public address systems (PA)

o Local area network

o Fax machines
0 Memorandum
o Teleconferencing
0 Letters
o Computer conferencing via networking
0 Reports
0 Minutes
0 Circulars
0 E-mailed messages
0 Faxed documents
 Provide a written record that can be used for verification Lack time to sort information out completely
Provide a medium for relaying complex ideas Be plagued by poor decision making techniques
Be used in analysis Have no written record which leads to arguments
Be used as a contract

Be difficult to interpret
o See, and hear the sender and receiver Be too time consuming to produce
o Allow quick clarification, opinion and views Be costly
Have problems in storage
Be difficult to evaluate

o Be used to simplify the written and oral Computerized telecommunications tend to have:
communications
o Be used to provide ideas in number form Difficulty in managing the high volume of information
o Be used to illustrate techniques that is transmitted
High cost in all areas
Problems in that once the message is transmitted there
is no chance of changing the tone e.g. an angry e-mail
o Disperse information quickly to any part of the world once sent cannot be retrieved and changed. This can be
o Transmit entire documents containing text, graphics, embarrassing.
photographs via the fax machine
o Conference via the computer allowing for interpersonal
exchange to take pl!lce quickly
o Achieve a high level of accuracy through these media The following story illustrates new challenges that
o Have or give feedback almost instantaneously
technology brings to human relationships

"What would you like for dinner?"

No answer.
Written communications tend to: "What would you like for dinner?" my mother repeated raising her voice.
o Be very formal, stilted and uncomfortable to some There was still no answer. I look back at my sister to find her staring
o Encounter problems with interpretation blankly into space, nonchalantly listening to her iPod. Once she notices
o Not allow instant feedback us staring at her, she pulls her earplug speakers out of her ears and says
o Be unable to modify dispatched information "Wha?"
This'is a common occurrence around my house. Repeating questions two,
three, four times before getting any responses.
My sister it seems has her iPod glued to her ear 24 hours a day; maybe
you know someone similar. You have an entire conversation with them
 only to find they've been jamming their favorite Machel Montano's soca
the entire time!"
Music fans would probably not hesitate to buy a portable music-playing The printing press is a revolutionary communication tool in that it
device like an iPod. These advances in technology however, make allows large scale one - to - many communication. The Internet is
many of us wonder if the future holds a world where communication, likewise revolutionary in that it allows large scale many- to - many
particularly face-to-face communication, is becoming obsolete. forms of communication.
More and more technology is breaking through the lines of The Internet allows a unique system of interaction in which many
communication it once encouraged. Inventions such as the iPod and people can interact and exchange information with each other. The
MP3 tend to isolate people, allow them to go into their own world printing press allowed for only a one-way exchange of information.
leaving the rest of us on the sidelines as observers. Entering into your own While a web site is primarily a one- to- many means of communication,
world or even creating your own space is not an entirely bad situation; there are other facets of the Internet such as Internet newsgroups and
people need personal time, time to relax, but these convenient little blogs that are many- to- many. Internet newsgroups, which are like
gadgets somehow manage to act as barriers to the everyday interactions electronic message boards where people quickly exchange ideas with
that we were once used to.
one another, are just like an immediately available, instant feedback,
This isolation is not typical. While gadgets like the iPod and MP3 may constantly updated 3-dimensional book. This further facilitates the
isolate [Link] their family (as my sister above), it may also draw them
generation of new ideas since there is now an exchange of ideas that
into another community, a community of iPod and MP3 users.
can quickly be expanded on, as opposed to a single person sharing
Today's technologies it seems somehow manage to draw people out of
his ideas and then the public reacting to it over a long period of time.
one type of communication into another. Technology creates another
However, there is also a drawback to this many to many system of
environment fOr them: Trying to talk to teenagers while they are IMing
information exchange that the Internet presents.
or liming on ''MY Lime" is a frustrating venture! It is reminiscent of
Since there is no barrier of entry and anyone can post information
talking to a brick wall! While the teens may be unable to communicate
on the internet, information overload can become a problem. The
with you, they can be communicating with an innumerable amount of
people on the Internet. extensive amount of information makes it difftcult to distinguish
useful information from junk information.
Aside .from communication, techn~logy fOsters an identity whether false or
Before the printing press, information storage relied mostly on
real. It is now a common beliif that one could probably teU a lot about a
person by listening to their iPod or their cell phone conversation! This may memory and information retrieval on mnemonic devices (tricks that
be right. People use these gadgets, these technologies, to express themselves. one uses to help memorize something) such as acronyms and acrostics,
'We are what we eat' went the old adage of the 90 'soToday, it can be rhymes, groupings and imagery. This sort of a system seriously limited
replaced by 'we are the technologies we use. ' the amount of information that could be dealt with.
How many people now work .from home via their computer? How many The printing press and the Internet both ignore the lower income
people stay in touch mainly via e-mails? How many people text message? class. The lower income class did not receive much of the direct
How many people are addicted to Instant Messenger? benefits of the printing press because they were illiterate. They felt
Some of these activities are all fun but are drawing us [Link] the effect in a roundabout way as progress in society affected everyone
traditional means of communication and into the new world of within it. However, in general the printing press passed them by. The
communicating via the cyberspace. Everyone is busy communicating with same can be said about the Internet because the lower income classes
someone. Family chats and family dinners are becoming rare entities and have little exposure to the Internet since costs of owning a computer
sadly, things of the past. and being networked remain high.
The key to using technology is in moderation.
 Just as the printing press initially created a literate middle class, them off without giving them the careful personal consideration they
a class division may also be created around computer literaCy. Those would give to a letter. Compared with receiving a letter, which has
persons who are computer literate have an advantage over those who the personal touch of its sender, receiving an e-mail can be a relatively
are not in all sectors of society today, which is nearly as great as the meaningless experience.
advantage the literate middle class had over the illiterate lower class. In the past, people were forced to interact personally and often
Those who are computer literate are more likely to succeed. Thus they face to face with others to perform daily tasks. This forced them to
will continue to be able to afford computer and internet access in future acquire social skills. Today, the Internet, telephone and cell phone
generations. It is possible that persons who are computer illiterate will have lessened the needJor direct communication. This situation could
not have the marketable skills necessary to bring them the income cause the human social skills required for a happy and successful life
required to have sufficient access to computers and the internet. In to diminish.
this way a disadvantaged underclass of the computer illiterate may Numerous studies have demonstrated that technology is
form. However, the availability of internet cafes with their relatively particularly valuable in improving students' writing. The ease with
low hourly rates will facilitate in the future greater use of technology which students can edit their written work on word processors makes
by the lower income groups. them more willing to do so, which in turn improves the quality of their
writing. Studies have shown that students are also better at critiquing
105 Effect of these technologies on human interaction and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer network
with students they know. Students' writing that is shared with other
Electronic mail (e-mail) and chat programs are already making a big students over a network tends to be of higher quality than writing
impact on the way people communicate. E-mail is quickly replacing produced for in-class use only.
regular mail since it is faster, cheaper, and more convenient. Chat
programs are beginning to replace the telephone since they are more
convenient and allow a person to talk to multiple people at once.
Even commercial interactions such as buying and selling goods or The typical person that lived before the dawn of the Information Age
gathering information are fa~ilitated by the internet. However, one of the 20th Century existed with a totally different mindset. Such an
drawback that comes with these changes is that like the printing press, individual had a very distinct way to communicate. When people
the Internet allows communication to become less personal. communicated over long distances, they waited patiently and expected
Before the printing press became operational, to get information, delays in messages. No one really seemed to be in a hurry to do
one had to find a person who was either an authority/expert or knew things or was too busy to stop and chat with another person. Opening
that information and ask them to explain it to you. This sort of letters and hearing people's voices was an integral part of their lifestyle
personal interaction with people was required to get almost anything and ideas were shared in person or face-to-face. Everyone knew the
done. With the advent of the printing press, information could be face behind the person to whom they spoke, and people enjoyed long
acquired independently from a book or other printed format without conversations over meals and visiting others in person and their styles
much personal interaction with others. Two- way communication of communication did not depend on communication technologies
then, however, still required face to face interaction. too greatly.
The arrival of the telephone and Internet allowed two- way After the advent of the telephone, cell-phone and Internet,
communication to occur without such personal interaction. Writing an communication technologies became a more integral part of everyday
e-mail tends to be substantially less personal than writing a real letter. life and just as with everything in this world these too have their
I
E-mail is so fast, simple, and convenient that people tend to send
 advantages and disadvantages. New technology such as the Internet has • Users can be a bit too casual
impacted both ethically and unethically on communication practices. • Phone rings at inappropriate times
• Long distance or overseas calls can be expensive
107 Advantages and disadvantages of communication • Can be susceptible to interference from poor transmission quality
technologies and background noise

Advantages of the cell phones

Allow for a variety of functions e.g. store information, make a to-do • You are able to gain access to a wide variety of information in one
list. Keep track of your appointments and set reminders. place
Can perform mathematical calculations, send and receive calls, get • Allows for easy shopping for goods and services
information from many sources such as news, entertainment, stock • Messages can be sent out instantaneously and to as many persons
quotations and play simple games.
and you like.
Parents can use them to keep track of their children
• Provides up to date news from around that world
• Accessible from virtually anywhere
Disadvantages of cell phones • Allows you to download information
Emits a small amount of electromagnetic radiation • Requires minimal computer skills
Drop calls • Allows persons to feel less inhibited to communicate with others
When used inappropriately can sometimes be the cause of accidents • Allows persons to study and become qualified on line
or can be annoying and disruptive

Advantages of the telephQne

• Tests, handouts and homework assignments can be posted online
Supports interpersonal communication affording easy accessibility
Accessible • Members of an online community can speak in a special abbreviated
Supports two- way conversation or truncated language e.g. omg! (oh my gosh!), 101 (laugh out loud or
Offers immediacy of conversation lots of love) and btw (by the way)
Supports personal or group communication via teleconferencing
or audio conferencing
Contributes to personal mobility as you do not have to sit and wait
around for a call • Can set up their own internal Internet called an Intranet which can
link all the company's operation in different countries and cities.
Disadvantages of the telephone • The Intranet allows managers the opportunity to be away from the
actual office and yet be able to oversee his staff.
The oral communication and any agreements made via this medium
usually require a written follow up so as to provide some form of
record of agreement.