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Ego Strength The ability to manage life realistically
The alliance, the relationship, the personal and interpersonal skills of the therapist, client
Contextual factors
agency, and extra-therapeutic factors; primary determinants of therapeutic outcome
Refers to counselors' behavior in directly attempting to define a client's values, attitudes,
Value imposition
beliefs, and behaviors
The process of therapists seeing in their clients patterns of their own behavior, overidentifying
with clients, or meeting their own needs through their clients; triggered when we respond
Countertransference
defensively, or when we lose our ability to be present in a relationship because our own issues
become involved
In order to come to this type of decision - consult with colleagues, keep yourself informed
about laws affecting your practice, keep up to date in your specialty field, stay abreast of
Ethical decisions
developments in ethical practice, reflect on the impact your values have on your practice, and
be willing to engage in honest self-examination
Mandatory ethics The view of ethical practice that deals with the minimum level of professional practice
Aspirational ethics A higher level of ethical practice that addresses doing what is in the best interests of clients
An approach taken by practitioners who want to do their best for clients rather than simply
Positive ethics
meet minimum standards to stay out of trouble
Identify the problem or dilemma; This will help you decide whether the problem is mainly
ethical, legal, professional, clinical, or moral. Identify the potential issues. Evaluate the rights,
responsibilities, and welfare of all those who are involved in the situation. Look at the relevant
ethics codes for general guidance on the matter. Consider whether your own values and ethics
are consistent with or in conflict with the relevant guidelines. Consider the applicable laws
and regulations, and determine how they may have a bearing on an ethical dilemma. Seek
consultation from more than one source to obtain various perspectives on the dilemma, and
Ways to think through ethical problems
document in the client's record what suggestions you received from this consultation. Brain-
storm various possible courses of action. Enumerate the consequences of various decisions,
and reflect on the implications of each course of action for your client.
Decide on what appears to be the best possible course of action. Once the course of action
has been implemented, follow up to evaluate the outcomes and to determine whether further
action is necessary. Document the reasons for the actions you took as well as your evaluation
measures.
Professional maturity Implies that you are open to questioning and discussing your quandaries with colleagues
The right of clients to be informed about their therapy and to make autonomous decisions
Informed consent pertaining to it; it is an ethical and legal requirement that is an integral part of the therapeutic
process
An ethical concept, and in most states it is the legal duty of therapists not to disclose infor-
Confidentiality mation about a client; this is central to developing a trusting and productive client-therapist
relationship
A legal concept that generally bars the disclosure of confidential communications in a legal
proceeding; the specifics of this privilege vary from state to state; generally speaking, the legal
Privileged communication
concept of this term does not apply to group counseling, couples counseling, family therapy,
or child and adolescent therapy
Child abuse, sexual abuse under the age of 16, abuse of the elderly, abuse of dependent
When do we break confidentiality? adults, and danger to self or others; All mental health practitioners and interns need to be
aware of their duty to report in these situations and to know the limitations of confidentiality

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Consists of evaluating the relevant factors in a client's life to identify themes for further
Assessment
exploration in the counseling process
Sometimes part of the assessment process, this is the analysis and explanation of a client's
problems; It may include an explanation of the causes of the client's difficulties, an account of
Diagnosis
how these problems developed over time, a classification of any disorders, a specification of
preferred treatment procedure, and an estimate of the chances for a successful resolution
To identify disruptions in a client's present behavior and lifestyle; once problem areas are
clearly identified, the counselor and client are able to establish the goals of the therapy
process, and then a treatment plan can be tailored to the unique needs of the client; a
What is the purpose of diagnosing someone?
diagnosis provides a working hypothesis that guides the practitioner in understanding the
client; diagnosis begins with the intake interview and continues throughout the duration of
therapy
The possible failure of counselors to consider ethnic and cultural factors in certain patterns of
behavior; The DSM-IV-TR emphasizes the importance of being aware of unintentional bias and
What are some drawbacks to diagnoses? keeping an open mind to the presence of distinctive ethnic and cultural patterns that could
influence the diagnostic process; certain behaviors and personality styles may be labeled
neurotic or deviant simply because they are not characteristic of the dominant culture
Psychotherapists are required to base their practice on techniques that have empirical evi-
dence to support their efficacy; Research studies empirically analyze the most effective and
Evidence-based practice (EBP)
efficient treatments, which then can be widely implemented in clinical practice; this goes hand
in hand with health insurance companies views as well
1) Looking for the best available research, 2) relying on clinical expertise, and 3) taking into
The Three Pillars of Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)
consideration the client's characteristics, culture, and preferences
Involves using data generated during treatment to inform the process and outcome of
Practice-Based Evidence
treatment (more detailed in Chapter 15)
Either sexual or nonsexual, occur when counselors assume two (or more) roles simultaneously
or sequentially with a client; this may involve assuming more than one professional role or
Dual/Multiple Relationships
combining professional and nonprofessional roles; these terms are used interchangably- ACA
uses the term "nonprofessional relationship"
Nonsexual: combining the roles of teacher and therapist or of supervisor and therapist;
bartering for goods or therapeutic services; borrowing money from a client; providing therapy
to a friend, an employee, or a relative; engaging in a social relationship with a client; accepting
Examples of multiple/dual relationships an expensive gift from a client; or going into a business venture with a client. Sexual: becoming
emotionally or sexually involved with a current client is clearly unethical, unprofessional, and
illegal. Sexual involvement with a former client is unwise, can be exploitative, and is generally
considered unethical
The ACA Code of Ethics ( ACA, 2005) stresses that counseling professionals must learn how to
manage multiple roles and responsibilities in an ethical way. This entails dealing effectively
ACA Code of Ethics opinion on multiple relationships with the power differential that is inherent in counseling relationships and training relation-
ships, balancing boundary issues, addressing nonprofessional relationships, and striving to
avoid using power in ways that might cause harm to clients, students, or supervisees
A departure from a commonly accepted practice that could potentially benefit a client (For
Boundary crossing example, attending the wedding of a client may be extending a boundary, but it could be
beneficial for the client)
A serious breach that harms the client and is therefore unethical; a type of boundary crossing
Boundary violation that takes the practitioner out of the professional role, which generally involves exploitation
and results in harm to a client
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This can be useful in the counseling process when applied ethically; some boundary crossings
Flexible boundaries pose no ethical problems and may enhance the counseling relationship, while other boundary
crossings may lead to a pattern of blurred professional roles and become problematic
Devoted most of his life to formulating and extending his theory of psychoanalysis; he first
examined his childhood memories and came to realize the intense hostility he felt for his father,
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
the sexual feelings for his mother, and then clinically formulated his theory as he observed his
patients work through their own problems in analysis
Basically deterministic; our behavior is determined by irrational forces, unconscious motiva-
The Freudian view of human nature tions, and biological and instinctual drives as these evolve through key psychosexual stages
in the first years of life
a source of motivation that encompasses sexual energy but goes beyond it; later broadened
Libido to include energy of all the life instincts; these instincts serve the purpose of the survival of
the individual and human race; they are oriented toward growth, development, and creativity
accounts for the aggressive drive according to Freud; at times, people manifest through their
behavior an unconscious wish to die or hurt themselves or others; managing this aggressive
Death instincts
drive is a major challenge (both sexual and aggressive drives are powerful determinants of
why people act as they do, according to Freud)
All the untamed drives or impulses that might be likened to the biological component; The
original system of personality; at birth, a person is ALL id; Primary source of psychic energy
and the seat of the instincts; Lacks organization and is blind, demanding, and insistent; The id
The id
cannot tolerate tension, and wants to discharge tension immediately; Ruled by the pleasure
principle; The id never matures; it does not think; but only wishes or acts; largely unconscious
and out of awareness
The idea that the id is driven to satisfy instinctual needs by reducing tension, avoiding pain,
The Pleasure Principle
and gaining pleasure
Instincts oriented toward growth, development, and creativity that serve the purpose of the
Life instincts
survival of the individual and the human race
Attempts to organize and mediate between the id, and the reality of dangers posed by the
id's impulses; checks and controls the id's blind impulses; Actions of the ego may or may not
be conscious; Has contact with the external world of reality - it is the executive that governs,
The ego
controls, and regulates the personality; it mediates between the instincts and the surrounding
environment; The ego controls consciousness and exercises censorship; Ruled by the reality
principle; The ego distinguishes between mental images and things in the external world
The idea that the ego does realistic and logical thinking and formulates plans of action for
The Reality Principle
satisfying needs
The internalized social component; largely rooted in what the person imagines to be the
expectations of parental figures; may be more punitive and demanding than the person's
parents really were; Includes a person's moral code, the main concern being whether an
action is good or bad, right or wrong; Represents the ideal rather than the real and strives not
for pleasure but for perfection; Represents the traditional values and ideals of society as they
The Superego
are handed down from parents to children; Functions to inhibit the id impulses, persuade
the ego to substitute moralistic goals for realistic ones, and strives for perfection; Related to
psychological rewards and punishments (from the internalization of the standards of parents
and society); The rewards are feelings of pride and self-love; the punishments are feelings of
guilt and inferiority
(1) Dreams, which are symbolic representations of unconscious needs, wishes, and conflicts;
(2) Slips of the tongue and forgetting, for example, a familiar name; (3) Posthypnotic sug-
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gestions; (4) Material derived from free-association techniques; (5) Material derived from
Clinical evidence for postulating the unconscious
projective techniques; and (6) The symbolic content of psychotic symptoms.
That aspect of psychological functioning or of personality that houses experiences, wishes,
impulses, and memories in an out-of-awareness state as a protection against anxiety; stores all
Unconscious experiences, memories, and repressed material - needs and motivations that are inaccessible
are also outside the sphere of conscious control; Unconscious processes are at the root of all
forms of neurotic symptoms and behaviors
Psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy involves a shortening and simplifying of the lengthy
process of psychoanalysis; these therapists remain alert to transference manifestations, ex-
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
ploring the meaning of clients' dreams, exploring the past and present, and concerned with
unconscious material
A feeling of dread that results from repressed feelings, memories, desires, and experience that
emerge to the surface of awareness; it can be considered a state of tension that motivates us
to do something; develops out of a conflict among the id, ego, and superego over control of
Anxiety
the available psychic energy; The function of anxiety is to warn of impending danger; When
the ego cannot control anxiety by rational and direct methods, it relies on indirect ones -
ego-defense behaviors
The fear of danger from the external world, and the level of such anxiety is proportionate to
Reality anxiety
the degree of the real threat
The fear that the instincts will get out of hand and cause one to do something for which one
Neurotic anxiety
will be punished; evoked by threats to the "balance of power" within the person
The fear of one's own conscience; people with a well-developed conscience tend to feel guilty
Moral anxiety when they do something contrary to their moral code; evoked by threats to the "balance of
power" within the person
Helps the individual cope with anxiety and prevent the ego from being overwhelmed; rather
than being pathological, ego defenses are normal behaviors that can have adaptive value
Ego-Defense Mechanisms
provided they do not become a style of life that enables the individual to avoid facing reality;
the defenses employed depend on the individual's level of development and degree of anxiety
What do defense mechanisms have in common? 1) They either deny or distort reality, and 2) they operate on an unconscious level
Threatening or painful thoughts and feelings are excluded from awareness; One of the most
Repression important Freudian processes; Freud explained this as "an involuntary removal of something
from consciousness"
An effort to suppress unpleasant reality; It consists of coping with anxiety by "closing our eyes"
Denial to the existence of anxiety-producing reality; similar to repression, yet it generally operates at
preconscious and conscious levels
Actively expressing the opposite impulse when confronted with a threatening impulse; A
defense against a threatening impulse, involving actively expressing the opposite impulse
Reaction formation
(EX: concealing hate with a facade of love; being extremely nice when harboring negative
reactions)
A mechanism of self-deception; involves attributing our own unacceptable thoughts, feelings,
Projection
behaviors, and motives to others ("It's those people out there, not me")
Entails redirection of some emotion from a real source to a substitute person or object;
Directing energy toward another object or person when the original object or person is
Displacement inaccessible; a way of coping by discharging impulses from a threatening target to a safer
target; A way of coping with anxiety (EX: the meek man who feels intimated by his boss comes
home and unloads inappropriate hostility onto his children)
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We attempt to justify our behavior by imputing logical motives to it; Manufacturing "good"
reasons to explain away a bruised ego; helps justify specific behaviors; (EX: when people don't
get positions, they think of logical reasons they did not succeed, and attempt to convince
themselves they never wanted the job anyway)
Diverting sexual or aggressive energy into other socially acceptable channels; EX: aggressive
Sublimation
impulses channeled into athletic activities
An individual reverts to a less mature form of behavior as a way of coping with extreme
stress; in the face of severe stress or extreme challenge, individuals may cope by clinging
Regression to immature and inappropriate behaviors (EX: children who are frightened in school may
indulge in infantile behavior such as weeping, excessive dependence, thumbsucking, hiding,
or clinging to the teacher)
Taking in and "swallowing" the values and standards of others; (EX: incorporation of parental
values (positive form); in concentration camps some of the prisoners dealt with overwhelming
Introjection
anxiety by accepting the values of the enemy through identification with the aggressor
(negative form))
This may involve individuals identifying themselves with successful causes in the hope that
they will be seen as worthwhile; Identifying with successful causes, organizations, or people
Identification in the hope that you will be perceived as worthwhile; This is part of the developmental process
by which children learn gender-role behaviors, but it can also be a defensive reaction when
used by people who feel basically inferior
Consists of masking perceived weaknesses or developing certain positive traits to make up for
Compensation limitations; Making perceived weaknesses or developing certain positive traits to make up for
limitations; (EX: "Don't see the ways in which I am inferior, but see me in my accomplishments")
the Freudian chronological phases of development, beginning in infancy; a significant contri-
Psychosexual stages bution of the psychoanalytic model; Each is characterized by a primary way of gaining sensual
and sexual gratification
The initial phase of psychosexual development, during which the mouth is the primary source
of gratification; a time when the infant is learning to trust or mistrust the world; Deals with
Oral stage
the inability to trust oneself and others, resulting in the fear of loving and forming close
relationships and low self-esteem
The second stage of psychosexual development, when pleasure is derived from retaining and
Anal stage expelling feces; Deals with the inability to recognize and express anger, leading to the denial
of one's own power as a person and the lack of a sense of autonomy
The third phase of psychosexual development, during which the child gains maximum gratifi-
Phallic stage cation through direct experience with the genitals; Deals with the inability to fully accept one's
sexuality and sexual feelings, and also to difficulty in accepting oneself as a man or woman
These three areas of personal and social development (love and trust, dealing with negative
feelings, and developing a positive acceptance of sexuality) are all grounded in the first 6 years
The Psychosexual Stages of life; this period is the foundation on which later personality development is built; When a
child's needs are not adequately met during these stages, an individual may become fixated
at that stage and behave in psychologically immature ways later in life
1963; Erikson built on Freud's ideas and extended his theory by stressing the psychosocial
aspects of development beyond early childhood; he believed that Freud did not go far enough
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Perspective
in explaining the ego's place in development and did not give enough attention to social
influences throughout the life span

Psychosocial stages

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Refers to Erikson's basic psychological and social tasks, which individuals need to master at
intervals from infancy through old age; this stage perspective provides the counselor with
the conceptual tools for understanding key developmental tasks characteristic of the various
stages of life; Holds that psychosexual growth and psychosocial growth take place together,
and we face the task of establishing equilibrium between ourselves and our social world at
each stage of life
Trust versus mistrust - first year of life; If significant others provide for basic physical and
emotional needs, infant develops a sense of trust. If basic needs are not met, an attitude
Psychosocial Stage: Infancy
of mistrust toward the world, especially toward interpersonal relationships, is the result
(Comparable to Freud's Oral Stage)
Autonomy versus shame and doubt - Ages 1-3; A time for developing autonomy. Basic struggle
is between a sense of self-reliance and a sense of self-doubt. Child needs to explore and
Psychosocial Stage: Early Childhood experiment, to make mistakes, and to test limits. If parents promote dependency, child's
autonomy is inhibited and capacity to deal with world successfully is hampered. (Comparable
to Freud's Anal Stage)
Initiative versus guilt - Ages 3-6; Basic task is to achieve a sense of competence and initiative.
If children are given freedom to select personally meaningful activities, they tend to develop
a positive view of self and follow through with their projects. If they are not allowed to make
Psychosocial Stage: Preschool Age
their own decisions, they tend to develop guilt over taking initiative. They then refrain from
taking an active stance and allow others to choose for them (Comparable to Freud's Phallic
Stage)
Industry versus inferiority - Ages 6-12; Child needs to expand understanding of world,
continue to develop appropriate gender-role identity, and learn the basic skills required for
Psychosocial Stage: School Age school success. Basic task is to achieve a sense of industry, which refers to setting and attaining
personal goals. Failure to do so results in a sense of inadequacy (Comparable to Freud's
Latency Stage)
Identity versus role confusion - Ages 12-18; A time of transition between childhood and
adulthood. A time for testing limits, for breaking dependent ties, and for establishing a new
Psychosocial Stage: Adolescence identity. Major conflicts center on clarification of self-identity, life goals, and life's meaning.
Failure to achieve a sense of identity results in role confusion (Comparable to Freud's Genital
Stage)
Intimacy versus isolation - Age 18-35; Developmental task at this time is to form intimate
Psychosocial Stage: Young Adulthood
relationships. Failure to achieve intimacy can lead to alienation and isolation
Generativity versus stagnation - Age 35-60; There is a need to go beyond self and family and be
involved in helping the next generation. This is a time of adjusting to the discrepancy between
Psychosocial Stage: Middle Age
one's dream and one's actual accomplishments. Failure to achieve a sense of productivity often
leads to psychological stagnation
Integrity versus despair Age 60+; If one looks back on life with few regrets and feels personally
Psychosocial Stage: Later Life worthwhile, ego integrity results. Failure to achieve ego integrity can lead to feelings of
despair, hopelessness, guilt, resentment, and self-rejection
according to Erikson, this is equivalent to a turning point in life when we have the potential
to move forward, or to regress; at these points, we can either resolve our conflicts or fail to
Crisis (Erikson)
master the development task; our life is the result of the choices we make at each of these
stages

The traditional (Freudian) approach to psychoanalysis based on a long-term exploration of

Classical Psychoanalysis
past conflicts, many of which are unconscious, and an extensive process of working through

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early wounds.; Grounded on the id psychology, and it holds that instincts and intrapsychic
conflicts are the basic factors shaping personality development (both normal and abnormal)
Newer formulations of psychoanalytic theory that share some core characteristics of classical
analytic theory, but with different applications of techniques; Tends to be based on ego
Contemporary Psychoanalysis
psychology, which does not deny the role of intrapsychic conflicts but emphasizes the striving
of the ego for mastery and competence throughout the human life span
The psychosocial approach of Erik Erikson, which emphasizes the development of the ego or
self at various stages of life; Deals with both the early and later developmental stages, for the
Ego Psychology
assumption is that current problems cannot simply be reduced to repetitions of unconscious
conflicts from early childhood
in classical psychoanalysis, analysts typically assume this anonymous stance aimed at fostering
"Blank-Screen" Approach transference; they engage in very little self-disclosure and maintain a sense of neutrality to
foster a transference relationship, in which their clients will make projections onto them
Refers to the transfer of feelings originally experienced in an early relationship to other
important people in a person's present environment; If therapists say little about themselves
Transference relationship and rarely share their personal reactions, the assumption is that whatever the client feels
toward them will largely be the product of feelings associated with other significant figures
from the past
Clients interested in traditional, or classical, psychoanalysis must be willing to commit them-
selves to an intensive and long-term therapy process; typically asked not to make any radical
changes in their lifestyle; - Psychoanalytic clients are ready to terminate their sessions after
Client's Experience in Psychoanalysis resolving a plethora of topics - resolving emotional problems, understanding historic roots of
difficulty, mastery of core themes, insight into how their environment affects them, reduced
defensiveness, and can integrate their awareness of past problems with their present rela-
tionships
Concept of psychoanalysis where clients try to say whatever comes to mind without self-cen-
Free Association sorship; known as the fundamental rule where clients report their feelings, experiences,
associations, memories, and fantasies to the analyst
encourages deep, uncensored reflections and reduces the stimuli that might interfere with
getting in touch with internal conflicts and productions; and reduces the clients' ability to
Client "Lying on the couch"
"read" their analyst's face for reactions, which fosters the projections characteristic of a
transference;
The client's unconscious shifting to the analyst of feelings and fantasies that are reactions
to significant others in the client's past; a significant aspect of the therapeutic relationship;
Transference involves the unconscious repetition of the past in the present; reflects the deep patterning of
old experiences in relationships as they emerge in current life; angry feelings are a result of
negative transference, but clients also may develop a positive transference
A process of resolving basic conflicts that are manifested in the client's relationship with the
therapist; achieved by the repetition of interpretations and by exploring forms of resistance,
Working-through process
most of which originated in early childhood; Results in a resolution of old patterns and allows
clients to make new choice
1) Maintaining the analytic framework, 2) Free association, 3) Interpretation, 4) Dream
Six Basic Techniques of Psychoanalytic Therapy
analysis, 5) Analysis of resistance, and 6) Analysis of transference
Refers to a whole range of procedural and stylistic factors, such as the analyst's relative
anonymity, maintaining neutrality and objectivity, the regularity and consistency of meetings,
Maintaining the analytic framework
starting and ending the sessions on time, clarity on fees, and basic boundary issues such as
the avoidance of advice giving or imposition of the therapist's values
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Clients are encouraged to say whatever comes to mind, regardless of how painful, silly, trivial,
illogical, or irrelevant it may seem; as the analytic work progresses, most clients will occa-
sionally depart from this basic rule; one of the basic tools to open the doors to unconscious
Free association wishes, fantasies, conflicts, and motivations; the therapist's task is to identify the repressed
material that is locked in the unconscious; blocking's or disruptions in associations serve as
cues to anxiety-arousing material; A slip of the tongue may suggest that an expressed emotion
is accompanied by a conflicting affect - nothing the client says is taken at face value
Consists of the analyst's pointing out, explaining, and even teaching the client the meanings
of behavior that is manifested in dreams, free association, resistances, and the therapeutic
relationship itself; enables the ego to assimilate new material and to speed up the process of
Interpretation uncovering further unconscious material; Must be appropriately timed or the client will reject
the interpretation; The therapist should interpret material that the client has not yet seen but
is capable of tolerating and incorporating; The interpretation should start from the surface
and go only as deep as the client is able to go
An important procedure for uncovering unconscious material and giving the client insight into
Dream analysis some areas of unresolved problems; defenses are lowered and repressed feelings surface
during sleep
Two levels of dream content Latent content and manifest content
Latent content Consists of hidden, symbolic, and unconscious motives, wishes, and fears
The dream as it appears to the dreamer; because latent content are so painful and threat-
Manifest content ening, the unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses that make up the latent content are
transformed into the more acceptable manifest content
The process by which the latent content of a dream is transformed into the less threatening
Dream work
manifest content
The client's reluctance to bring to awareness threatening unconscious material that has been
repressed; Freud viewed this as an unconscious dynamic that people use to defend against the
Resistance
intolerable anxiety and pain that would arise if they were to become aware of their repressed
impulses and feelings
Resistances are designed to protect individuals against anxiety and fear of change; Therapists
need to create a safe climate that allows clients to explore their defenses and resistances, and
Analysis of Resistance
therapists need to respect those resistances; Resistances are not just something that need to
be overcome, but need to be recognized
The analysis of transference is a central technique in psychoanalysis and psychoanalytically
Analysis of Transference oriented therapy, for it allows clients to achieve here-and-now insight into the influence of the
past on their presenting function
Developed a theory, analytical psychology, which is an elaborate explanation of human nature
that combines ideas from history, mythology, anthropology, and religion; made contributions
to our deep understanding of the human personality and personal development, particularly
Carl Jung
during middle age; maintained that we are not merely shaped by past events, but that we
are influenced by our future as well as our past; his theory is based on the assumption that
humans tend to move toward the fulfillment or realization of all of their capabilities
An elaborate explanation of human nature that combines ideas from history, mythology,
Analytical psychology
anthropology, and religion
The harmonious integration of the conscious and unconscious aspects of personality; an
Individuation
innate and primary goal for Jung's theory

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The deepest level of the psyche containing the accumulation of inherited experiences of
Collective unconscious
human and prehumen species
The images of universal experiences contained in the collective unconscious; the most impor-
Archetypes
tant archetypes are the persona, the anima and animus, and the shadow
Persona A mask, or public face, that we wear to protect ourselves
Represent both the biological and psychological aspects of masculinity and femininity, which
The animus and the anima
are thought to coexist in both sexes
Has the deepest roots and is the most dangerous and powerful archetypes; represents our
Shadow dark side, the thoughts, feelings, and actions that we tend to disown by projecting them
outward
Jung and Freud agree that dreams provide a pathway into the unconscious, but Jung dif-
fered from Freud on their functions; he said that they are prospective (help people prepare
Jung and Freud Differences themselves for the experiences/events they anticipate in the near future) and they serve
a compensatory function, working to bring about a balance between opposites within the
person
Part of classical psychoanalysis with the emphasis placed on the vocabulary of id, ego, and
superego, and on Anna Freud's identification of defense mechanisms; The psychosocial
Ego psychology
approach of Erik Erikson, which emphasizes the development of the ego or self at various
stages of life
A newer version of psychoanalytic thinking, which focuses on predictable developmental
sequences in which early experiences of self shift in relation to an expanding awareness
of others. It holds that individuals go through phases of autism, normal symbiosis, and
Object-Relations Theory separation and individuation, culminating in a state of integration; Encompasses the work of
a number of rather different psychoanalytic theorists; emphasis is how our relationships with
other people are affected by the way we have internalized our experiences of others and set
up representations of others within ourselves
A theory that emphasizes how we use interpersonal relationships (self objects) to develop our
Self-psychology own sense of self; A psychoanalytic theory that has more fully considered the unconscious
influence of other people; grew out of the work of Heinz Kohut
A model that characterizes therapy as an interactive process between client and therapist in
which countertransference provides an important source of information about the client's
Relational model character and dynamics; Contemporary relational theorists have challenged what they con-
sider to be the authoritarian nature of the traditional psychoanalytic relationship, and replaced
it with a more egalitarian model
A central influence on contemporary object-relations theory; a pediatrician who emphasized
the observation of children; Her belief is that the individual begins in a state of psychological
Margaret Mahler fusion with the mother and progresses gradually to separation; the unfinished crises and
residues of the earlier state of fusion, as well as the process of separating and individuating,
have a profound influence on later influences;
Normal infantile autism: first 3 or 4 weeks of life, the infant is in an undifferentiated state from
the mother; Symbiosis: 3rd month to the 8th month, the infant has pronounced dependency
Margaret Mahler's Stages on the mother; Separation-individuation: begins in the 4th or 5th month, the child moves
away from symbiotic forms of relating; involves a move toward constancy of self and object,
which is typically pronounced by the 36th month

Characterized by a grandiose and exaggerated sense of self-importance and an exploitive at-

Narcissistic personality
titude toward others, which serve the function of masking a frail self-concept; individuals seek

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attention and admiration from others; they unrealistically exaggerate their accomplishments,
and have a tendency toward extreme self-absorption
A disorder characterized by instability, irritability, self-destructive acts, impulsivity, and extreme
mood shifts. Such people lack a sense of their own identity and do not have a deep un-
Borderline personality disorder
derstanding of others; People who have moved into the separation process but have been
thwarted by parental rejection of their individuation
An adaptation of the principles of psychoanalytic theory and therapy aimed at treating selective
disorders within a preestablished time limit; Messer and Warren; this adaptation applies
the principles of psychodynamic theory and therapy to treating selective disorders within a
pre-established time limit of general 10 to 25 sessions; Uses key psychodynamic concepts
such as the enduring impact of psychosexual, psychosocial, and object-relational stages of
Brief Psychodynamic Therapy (BPT)
development; the unconscious processes and resistance; usefulness of interpretation; im-
portance of the working alliance; reenactment of the client's past emotional issues; generally
not suited for individuals with severe characterological disorders or for those with severe
depression; Tends to emphasize a client's strengths and resources in dealing with real-life
issues; therapists are interactive, directive, and self-disclosing
Alfred Adler's theory starts with a consideration of inferiority feelings, which he saw as a
normal condition of all people and as a source of all human striving; human behavior is not
determined solely by heredity and environment; instead, we have the capacity to interpret,
influence, and create events; Adlerians recognize that biological and environmental conditions
Adlerian Therapy
limit our capacity to choose and to create; they put the focus on reeducating individuals
and reshaping society; Adler was the forerunner of a subjective approach to psychology that
focuses on internal determinants of behavior such as values, beliefs, attitudes, goals, interests,
and the individual perception of reality
Can be the wellspring of creativity, rather than a sign of weakness or abnormality; inferiority
Inferiority Feelings (Adlerian) feelings motivate us to strive for mastery, success, and completion; we are driven to overcome
our sense of inferiority and to strive for higher levels of development
Focus on the way people perceive their world. For Adlerians, objective reality is less important
Phenomenological approach (Adlerian)
than how people interpret reality and the meanings they attach to what they experience.
Paying attention to the individual way in which people perceive their world; includes the
Subjective Reality (Adlerian)
individual's perceptions, thoughts, feelings, values, beliefs, convictions, and conclusions
Adler's original name for his approach that stressed understanding the whole person, how all
dimensions of a person are interconnected, and how all these dimensions are unified by the
Individual psychology (Adlerian) person's movement toward a life goal; it assumes that all human behavior has a purpose; we
only think, feel, and act in relation to our goal; a holistic concept that implies that we cannot
be understood in parts - rather, all aspects of ourselves must be understood in relationship
An imagined central goal that gives direction to behavior and unity to the personality; an
image of what people would be like if they were perfect and perfectly secure; A term many
fictional finalism (Adlerian) Adlerians use to refer to an imagined life goal that guides a person's behavior; Adler ceased
using this term and replaced it with "guiding self-ideal" and "goal of perfection" to account
for our striving toward superiority or perfection
Another term for fictional finalism, which represents an individual's image of a goal of
perfection; Represents an individual's image of a goal of perfection, for which he or she strives
The Guiding Self-Ideal (Adlerian)
in any given situation; because of our subjective final goal, we have the creative power to
choose what we will accept as truth, how we will behave, and how we will interpret events

Includes the connecting themes and rules of interaction that give meaning to our actions; The
Lifestyle (Adlerian)
core beliefs and assumptions through which the person organizes his or her reality and finds

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meaning in life events; Our perceptions of self, others, and the world; Our characteristic way
of thinking, acting, feeling, living, and striving toward long-term goals
A sense of identification with humanity; a feeling of belonging; an interest in the common
good; This concept involves the capacity to cooperate and contribute; The socialization process
associated with social interest begins in childhood and involves helping children to find a place
Social Interest (Adlerian) in society and acquire a sense of belonging, as well as the ability to make a contribution; o
Social interest is the central indicator of mental health; As social interest develops, feelings of
inferiority and alienation diminish; People express social interest through shared activity and
mutual respect
An individual's awareness of being part of the human community; Community feeling embod-
ies the sense of being connected to all humanity and to being committed to making the world
a better place; Embodies the feeling of being connected to all of humanity - past, present, and
Community feeling (Adlerian)
future - and to being involved in making the world a better place; Those who lack a community
feeling become discouraged and end up on the useless side of life; If our sense of belonging
is not fulfilled, anxiety is the result
Building friendships (social task), establishing intimacy (love-marriage task), and contributing
to society (occupational task); All of these tasks requires the development of psychological
capacities for friendship and belonging, for contribution and self-worth, and for cooperation;
Adler's Three Universal Life Tasks
Impairment in any one of them is often an indicator of a psychological disorder; The aim for
Adlerian therapy is to assist clients in modifying their lifestyle so they can more effectively
navigate each of these tasks
Adler identified five psychological positions from which children tend to view life: oldest,
Birth order (Adlerian) second of only two, middle, youngest, and only; Actual birth order itself is less important than
a person's interpretation of his or her place in the family
Somewhat spoiled as the center of attention during the time she is the only child; tends to be
dependable and hard working - strives to keep ahead; finds herself ousted from her favored
Oldest child (Adlerian) position when another sibling arrive -she is no longer unique or special; most often, she
reasserts her position by becoming a model child, bossing younger children, and exhibiting
a high achievement drive
Child behaves as if she were in a race and is generally under full steam at all times; this
competitive struggle between first and second child influences the later course of their lives;
The second child (of only two) (Adlerian)
if one is talented in a given area, the other strives for recognition by developing other abilities;
the second-born is often opposite to the first-born
Often feels squeezed out; this child may become convinced of the unfairness of life and feel
cheated; the middle child may become the switchboard and the peacemaker, especially in
The Middle Child (Adlerian) a family of conflict; if there are four children in a family, the second child will often feel like
a middle child and the third will be more easygoing, more social, and may align with the
firstborn
Baby of the family; pampered; may develop helplessness into an art form and become expert
The youngest child (Adlerian) at putting others in his service; youngest children tend to go their own way, often developing
in ways no others in the family have attempted and may outshine everyone
Shares some of the characteristics of the oldest child but may not learn to share or cooperate
with other children; learns to deal with adults well; may become dependently tied to one or
The only child (Adlerian)
both parents; may want to have center stage all of the time, and if her position is challenged,
she will feel it's unfair

In general, the therapeutic process includes forming a relationship based on mutual respect; a
holistic psychological investigation or lifestyle assessment; and disclosing mistaken goals and

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faulty assumptions within the person's style of living; The Adlerian is interested not in curing
"sick" individuals or a "sick" society but in reeducating individuals and in reshaping society;
The therapeutic process of Adlerian therapy
Encouragement is the most powerful method available for changing a person's beliefs, for it
helps clients build self-confidence and stimulates courage
The willingness to act even when fearful in ways that are consistent with social interest; fear
Courage (Adlerian) and courage go hand in hand - without fear, there would be no need for courage; discouraged
people do not act in line with social interest
includes parents, siblings, and others living in the home, life tasks, and early recollections;
this gives a picture of the individual's early social world ; The social and psychological
structure of the family system; includes birth order, the individual's perception of self, sibling
Family constellation (Adlerian) characteristics and ratings, and parental relationships. Each person forms his or her unique
view of self, others, and life through the family constellation; Includes the client's evaluation of
conditions that prevailed in the family when the person was a young child (family atmosphere),
birth order, parental relationship and family values, and extended family and culture
Childhood memories (before the age of 9) of one-time events. People retain these memories
as capsule summaries of their present philosophy of life; From a series of early recollections,
it is possible to understand mistaken notions, present attitudes, social interests, and possible
Early recollections (ER) (Adlerian)
future behavior; Used in the assessment procedure; Particularly useful as a functional assess-
ment device because they indicate what clients do and how they think in both adaptive and
maladaptive ways
The process of gathering early memories, which involves learning to understand the goals
Lifestyle assessment (Adlerian) and motivations of the client; when this process is completed, the therapist and the client
have targets for therapy
Basic convictions and assumptions of the individual that underlie the lifestyle pattern and
explain how behaviors fit together to provide consistency; the concepts about self, others,
and life that constitute the philosophy on which an individual's lifestyle is based; Private
Private logic (Adlerian)
logic involves our convictions and beliefs that get in the way of social interest and that do
not facilitate useful, constructive belonging; Clients' problems arise because the conclusions
based on their private logic often do not conform to the requirements of social living
Adlerian's consider a good client-therapist relationship to be one between equals that is based
on cooperation, mutual trust, respect, confidence, collaboration, and alignment of goals; From
The Therapeutic Relationship of Adlerian Therapy
the beginning of therapy, the relationship is a collaborative one, characterized by two persons
working equally toward specific, agreed-upon goals
1) Establish the proper therapeutic relationship, 2) Explore the psychological dynamics op-
erating in the client (an assessment), 3) Encourage the development of self-understanding
Four central objectives of Adlerian Counseling
(insight into purpose), 4) Help the client make new choices (reorientation and reeducation);
these steps are not linear, and do not progress in rigid steps
An intervention that is concise, deliberate, direct, efficient, focused, short-term, and purpose-
Adlerian Brief Therapy (ABT)
ful; Dreikurs originated minor psychotherapy, which is now elaborated into ABT
The counselor helps the client to tell his or her life story as completely as possible; the
best subjective interviews treat clients as experts in their own lives, allowing clients to feel
Subjective Interview completely heard; it should extract patterns in the person's life, develop hypotheses about
what works for the person, and determine what accounts for the various concerns in the
client's life

seeks to discover information about: How problems in the client's life began, Any precipitating
Objective Interview
events, A medical history, including current and past medications, A social history, The reasons

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the client chose therapy at this time, The person's coping with life tasks, and A lifestyle
assessment
A special form of awareness that facilitates a meaningful understanding within the therapeutic
relationship and acts as a foundation for change; understanding translated into constructive
action; Adlerian's refer to insight as an understanding of the motivations that operate in a
Insight
client's life; a special form of awareness that facilitates a meaningful understanding within
the therapeutic relationship and acts as a foundation for change; Disclosure and well-timed
interpretations are techniques that facilitate the process of gaining insight
Deals with client's underlying motives for behaving the way they do in the here and now;
Adlerian disclosures and interpretations are concerned with creating awareness of one's
Interpretations (Adlerian) direction in life, one's goals and purposes, one's private logic and how it works, and one's
current behavior; Adlerian interpretations are suggestions present tentatively in the form of
open-ended questions that can be explored in the sessions
Involves shifting rules of interaction, process, and motivation; these shifts are facilitated
through changes in awareness, which often occur during the therapy session and which are
transformed into action outside of the therapy office; Throughout this phase, no intervention
Reorientation
is more important than encouragement; The phase of the counseling process in which clients
are helped to discover a new and more functional perspective and are encouraged to take
risks and make changes in their lives
Encouragement is the most distinctive Adlerian procedure, and it is central to all phases of
The Encouragement Process counseling and therapy; Adlerian's believe discouragement is the basic condition that prevents
people from functioning, and encouragement is the antidote
Entails showing faith in people, expecting them to assume responsibility for their lives, and
Encouragement valuing them for who they are; Encouragement is key in promoting and activating social
interest
1) Relationship phase - encouragement results from the mutual respect the counselor seeks
to engender; 2) Assessment phase - clients are encouraged to recognize that they are in
charge of their own lives and can make different choices based on new understandings;
Encouragement Phases
3) Reorientation - encouragement comes when new possibilities are generated, and when
clients are acknowledged and affirmed for taking positive steps to change their lives for the
better

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