Module 1: Principles of Water shed Management

Basics concepts

DEFINITION OF WATERSHED

Watershed is a topographically delineated area drained by a stream system i.e. the total land area
above some point on a stream or river that drains down slope to the lowest point. The watershed is a
hydrologic unit often used as physical unit, biological unit and a socio-economic political unit for
planning and management of natural resources.

Watershed is defined as a natural unit of land which collects water and drains through a common
point called an outlet by a system of drains. Therefore, watershed is the area encompassing the
catchments, command and delta area of a stream. The top most portion of the watershed is known as
"ridge" and a line joining the ridge portion along the boundary of the watershed is called as
"ridgeline". A watershed is thus a logical unit for planning optimal development of its soil, water and
biomass resources.

Fig 1: watershed

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Watershed management is the process of guiding and organizing use of land and other resources in the
watershed to provide desired goods and services without adversely affecting soil, water and other natural
resources.

Watershed management in the broader sense means maintaining the equilibrium between elements of natural
eco-system or vegetation, land or water on the one hand and human activities on the other hand. The
watershed management programmes aim at improving soil health, soil tilth and drainage and achieving
efficient use of harvested and stored rainwater for supplemental irrigation and consequently enhanced

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productivity and higher economic returns. From community development point of view, watershed
management programmes aim at controlling flooding, water logging and soil erosion in order to increase
agricultural productivity and a more dependable, cleaner water supply for domestic and industrial use. These
programmes also help in minimizing risk of floods in rural and urban areas down streams, reducing
sedimentation and conserving natural resources efficiently and effectively. Watershed management
programmes strive to improve the lot of the entire farming communities rather than focusing on individual
farmers only.

Need of Watershed Management

Watershed degradation in the third world countries threatens the livelihood of millions of people and
seriously affects the development of a healthy agricultural and natural resource base. The existing
natural resource base is fast depleting due to excessive use of the soil and vegetation system by
growing livestock and human population.

The population growth exerts pressure on forests, community lands and marginal agricultural lands
resulting in inappropriate cultivation practices, forest depletion and grazing intensities. They cause
serious damage to the environment by excessive sedimentation of river system affecting the stream
flow to downstream users.

Watershed management has an important role to play in combating the Malthusian Effect which
states that that population tends to increase faster than the means to feed it. Watershed management
programmes play an important role in minimizing the Malthusian Effect by ecological and economic
rehabilitation of misused watershed slopes, revival of natural streams and augmentation of water
resources with active support and participation of people.

The watershed management programmes involve the entire community and natural resources
particularly land and water resources. Through watershed development programmes, the influence of
above factors needs to be observed as given below:

1. Socio-economic trend in income generation, employment pattern, household assets, health

care education, energy use and impact on women and the landless.
2. Perceptions, attitudes and behaviour of the people towards project activities and their
participation in planning and execution of project and management of resource proposed to
be developed under the project together with constraints.

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3. Productivity/production of crops and forage, changes in cropping pattern and land use
adoption or improved cropping practices. Survival and growth of perennial crops on non-
arable lands, increase wood and non-wood products and improve livestock milk production.
4. Improvement of environment by build-up of vegetative cover, reduction of runoff and soil
loss, improvement in livestock milk production policy.
5. Use of land and water in vegetation, animal and environment.
6. Soil erosion, moderation of floods, alleviation of drought, water availability in soil on surface
and underground storage, availability of fuel, fodder and food.
7. Development of institutions for planning and implementation.

Focus of Watershed Management

Watershed programmes focus mainly on the following:

1. Village common lands as well as private lands

2. Institutionalized community participation;
3. Sustainable rural livelihood support system;
4. Decentralized planning and decision making;
5. Ridge to valley treatment approach;
6. Integrated and holistic development of the watershed unit;
7. Protecting natural resources through stakeholders' participation; and
8. Providing best unit for planning a development programme

Concept of Watershed Management

Watershed management is based on the concept of sustainability and meeting the needs of present
population without compromising the interests of future generation. The concept of watershed
management is important for the efficient utilization of water and other natural resources.

The concept of watershed management may be expressed in symbolic form by "POWER".

P = Production of food-fodder fuel fruit fibres fish-milk-combine on a sustainable basis.

= Pollution control.

= Prevention of floods.

O = Over exploitation of resources to be minimized by controlling excessive Biotic interferences

like over grazing.
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= Operational practicability of all on-farm operations and follow up programmes including

easy access to different locations in watershed.

W = Water storage at convenient locations for different purposes.

= Wild animal and indigenous plant life conservation at selected places.

E = Erosion control = Eco-system safety

= Economic stability

= Employment generation

R = Rainwater harvesting

= Recharge of groundwater

= Reduction of drought hazard

= Reduction of siltation in multi-purpose reservoirs

= Recreation

Benefits of Watershed Management

Watershed management is expected to ensure the following benefits:

1. Controls floods, erosion and sedimentation;

2. Enhances productivity per unit area, per unit time and per unit of water;
3. Increases cropping intensity;
4. Leads to proper utilization of waste lands through alternate land use systems;
5. Ensures ecological balance;
6. Maximizes income through integrated farming system; and
7. Stabilizes income even under unfavourable weather conditions.

Objectives of Watershed Management

The basic objective of watershed management is to overcome the problems of land and water use
based on interdependence of all the resources and therefore must be considered together. The
watershed ultimately aims, at improving standard of living of common man in the basin by
increasing his earning capacity, by providing facilities such as electricity; water for irrigation and

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drinking water supply, freedom from fear of floods and droughts etc. Watershed management aims at
efficient utilization of the entire resources namely soil, water, crop including plantation, livestock,
fishery and human population etc. for sustained prosperity of the watersheds. The overall objectives
of watershed development programme are outlined below:

1. Recognition of watersheds as a proper unit for utilization and development of all lands. The
land should be treated in accordance with its peculiar need and by methods that will control
soil erosion, conserve water, encourage wild life, improve farm income and prevent flood
damage to agricultural lands.
2. Retardation and prevention of floods through small multipurpose reservoirs and other water
impounding structures at the streams and in problem areas.
3. Provision for an abundant water supply for domestic, industrial and agricultural needs.
4. Minimizing organic, inorganic and soil pollution.
5. Expansion of recreational facilities i.e. picnic and camping sites with more lakes and streams
suitable for boating, fishing or swimming.
6. Utilization of natural local resources for improving agriculture and allied occupation or
industries (small and cottage industries) to improve socioeconomic conditions of the local
residents and minimizing risks during aberrant weather conditions.
7. Improving infrastructural facilities with regard to storage, transportation and marketing of the
agricultural produce.
8. Setting up small scale agro industries.
9. Improving the socio-economic status of the farmers.
10. Employment generation.
11. Encouraging people participation.

Principles of Watershed Management

The main principles of watershed management based on resource conservation, resource generation
and resource utilization are:

• Utilising the land according to its capability;

• Protecting productive top soil;

• Reducing siltation hazards in storage tanks, reservoirs and lower fertile lands;

• Maintaining adequate vegetation cover on soil surface throughout the year;

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• In situ rainwater conservation;

• Safe diversion of excess water to storage points through vegetative waterways;

• Stabilization of gullies by providing checks at specified intervals and thereby increasing

groundwater recharge;

• Increasing crop intensity and land equivalent ratio through intercropping and sequence cropping;
Safe utilization of marginal lands through alternate land use systems with agriculture-horticulture-
forestry-pasture systems with varied options and combinations;

• Water harvesting for supplemental and off-season irrigation;

• Maximizing agricultural productivity per unit area per unit time and per unit of water;

• Ensuring sustainability of the eco-system befitting the man-animal-plant -water system;

• Maximizing the combined income from the interrelated and dynamic crop livestock-tree-labour
system over years; and

• Stabilizing total income.

Hydrology and Water Availability

Hydrology is an earth science which deals with the occurrence, distribution and disposal of water on the
planet earth.

Water availability is a major concern around the world. Although Earth has an abundance of water, most
of it is saline and not suitable for human consumption or agriculture. Freshwater resources are
unevenly distributed, and many regions of the world face water scarcity. Climate change, population
growth, and pollution are all putting additional pressure on water resources.

The global world water resources is estimated as 1.36*10^8 Mha-m. Out of this 97.2% is salt water
mainly in ocean, and remaining 2.8% is available as fresh water. Even out of 2.8% of fresh water
about 2.2% is fresh surface waters and 0.6% as ground water. even out of 2.2% of fresh water about
2.15% is held in glaciers and ice caps, and remaining 0.01% as surface water mainly in streams,
rivers and lakes and about 0.04%bwill be in other forms. Even out of 0.6% of ground water storage,
about 0.255 can be extracted by modern drilling methods (bore wells and tube wells).

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Major rivers in India and their water potential

Water basics Water potential in Mha-m

1 East flowing rivers- Krishna, Godavari, pennar 30
2 West flowing rivers- Narmada, Tapti 35.0
3 Ganges and its tributaries 55.0
4 Indus and its tributaries 8.00
5 The river Brahmaputra (assam) 59.0
Total 187

Hydrologic Cycle (Water Transfer Cycle)

Hydrologic cycle is a water transfer cycle which occurs continuously in nature. This is the
continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. Water evaporates from
the surface, condenses into clouds, and then falls back to the Earth as precipitation. This cycle is
essential for life on Earth. The three important phases of hydrologic cycle are

1. Evaporation and evapotranspiration

2. Precipitation or condensation
3. Surface runoff or overland flow

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Fig 2: Hydrologic Cycle

Watersheds: A watershed is an area of land that drains to a common point, such as a river, lake, or ocean.
The size and shape of a watershed can affect the amount of water that flows through it.

Groundwater: Groundwater is water that is stored underground in aquifers. Aquifers are layers of rock
or soil that can hold water. Groundwater is an important source of fresh water for drinking, irrigation,
and industry.

 Interconnectedness: Groundwater and surface water are interconnected. Rainfall infiltrates the
ground, replenishing aquifers that feed streams and rivers during dry periods. Conversely, healthy
streams can contribute to groundwater recharge. Watershed management practices consider these
connections to ensure the health of both resources.

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 Water Source: Groundwater is a vital source of freshwater for drinking water, irrigation, and
industrial uses, especially in areas with limited surface water availability. Effective watershed
management helps ensure the long-term sustainability of this resource.
 Maintaining Baseflow: Groundwater contributes to the baseflow of streams and rivers, which is the
minimum flow even during dry periods. This baseflow is crucial for aquatic life and maintaining
healthy ecosystems. Watershed management practices that promote groundwater recharge help
maintain this base flow.
 Pollution Control: Similar to surface water, contaminants like fertilizers and pesticides can seep
into the ground and pollute groundwater. Watershed management strategies aim to minimize these
pollutants to protect groundwater quality.

Here are some specific ways groundwater is managed within watersheds:

 Land Use Practices: Promoting sustainable land management practices like reducing tillage and
using cover crops can help minimize soil erosion and promote groundwater recharge.
 Aquifer Mapping and Monitoring: Understanding the location, extent, and health of aquifers is
crucial for managing groundwater resources. Watershed management plans often include mapping
and monitoring programs to track groundwater levels and quality.
 Water Conservation: Encouraging water conservation practices not only reduces pressure on
surface water sources but also helps maintain groundwater levels.

Surface water: Surface water is water that is on the surface of the Earth, such as in rivers, lakes, and
oceans. Surface water is a vital resource for drinking, irrigation, and transportation.

Surface water plays a critical role in watershed management.

 Source of Water: Surface water, like rivers, lakes, streams, and ponds, is the primary water body
that a watershed drains into. Understanding the volume, flow patterns, and quality of this surface
water is essential for managing the entire watershed.
 Erosion and Pollution Control: Watershed management aims to minimize erosion and control
pollutants from reaching the main waterbody. Surface water acts as a collector for runoff from the
land. Management practices focus on reducing the amount and speed of runoff, allowing more water
to infiltrate the soil and reducing the transport of pollutants like sediment and fertilizers.

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 Habitat and Biodiversity: Healthy surface water ecosystems are crucial for supporting fish, plants,
and other aquatic life. Watershed management considers the health of these habitats and aims to
minimize disturbances that could harm them.
 Storm water Management: Techniques like rain gardens and detention ponds slow down runoff,
allowing more water to soak into the ground and reducing the strain on streams and rivers during
heavy rainfall.
 Wetlands Protection: Wetlands naturally filter pollutants and regulate water flow. Protecting
existing wetlands and restoring degraded ones is an important part of watershed management.

Conjunctive use

Conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater is a strategy for managing water resources in a
watershed. It involves the coordinated use of both sources to maximize benefits and minimize
drawbacks.

Optimizing Water Use

 Seasonal Fluctuations: Surface water availability often fluctuates throughout the year. During high-
flow seasons (like spring), rivers and lakes may overflow, while low-flow seasons (like summer) can
see reduced surface water. Conjunctive use allows storing excess surface water during high-flow
periods for later use in low-flow periods.
 Demand Management: Water demands can also vary throughout the year. Agriculture, for instance,
might require more water during peak growing seasons. Conjunctive use allows utilizing
groundwater during high-demand periods and relying on surface water when demands are lower.
 Sustainability: Over-reliance on either surface water or groundwater can lead to problems.
Excessive surface water withdrawal can cause rivers to run dry, while excessive groundwater
pumping can deplete aquifers and lead to saltwater intrusion in coastal areas. Conjunctive use
promotes a more balanced approach, ensuring the long-term sustainability of both resources.

Putting it into Practice

 Managed Aquifer Recharge: During high-flow periods in surface water, excess water can be
diverted and infiltrated into the ground to replenish aquifers. This can be done through infiltration
basins, spreading basins, or well injection.

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 Pumping and Storage: Groundwater can be pumped from aquifers during low-flow periods in
surface water and stored in reservoirs for later use.
 In-stream Storage: Reservoirs built on rivers can store excess surface water during high-flow
periods. This stored water can be released to supplement stream flow during dry periods and
maintain healthy ecosystems.

Benefits

 Increased Water Availability: By utilizing both surface water and groundwater effectively,
conjunctive use can ensure a more reliable and consistent water supply throughout the year.
 Reduced Drought Impact: During droughts, relying on stored groundwater can help meet water
demands and mitigate the impact of dry seasons.
 Flood Control: Conjunctive use can help manage flood risks by storing excess surface water during
high-flow events.
 Improved Water Quality: Managed aquifer recharge can help filter and improve the quality of
water entering aquifers.

Human influences in the water resources system

Human influence on water resources is extensive and can have both positive and negative
consequences.

Water Quantity:

 Water Withdrawal: We extract massive quantities of water from surface and groundwater sources
for drinking, irrigation, and industrial uses. Excessive withdrawal can deplete rivers, lakes, and
aquifers, disrupting natural flow patterns and harming ecosystems.
 Land Use Changes: Deforestation and conversion of land for agriculture can alter rainfall patterns
and reduce infiltration, leading to less groundwater recharge and increased surface runoff. This can
cause both floods and droughts.
 Climate Change: Human activities contribute to climate change, which is altering precipitation
patterns and leading to more extreme weather events like droughts and floods. These changes can
significantly impact water availability.

Water Quality:

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 Pollution: Human activities release a variety of pollutants into water bodies, including industrial
waste, agricultural runoff, and untreated sewage. This contamination can make water unsafe for
drinking, harm aquatic life, and disrupt ecosystems.
 Salinization: Over-extraction of groundwater in coastal areas can lead to saltwater intrusion,
contaminating freshwater aquifers with unusable saline water.

Positive Influences:

 Water Conservation: Growing awareness of water scarcity is leading to increased efforts towards
water conservation. This includes practices like fixing leaks, using water-efficient appliances, and
adopting sustainable irrigation techniques in agriculture.
 Water Treatment: Advanced water treatment technologies can remove pollutants from
contaminated water sources, making them usable for drinking and other purposes.
 Watershed Management: A coordinated approach to managing watersheds, considering both
surface and groundwater, can help ensure a sustainable water supply and minimize negative human
impacts.

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