Unit-1

Introduction: Network Types, LAN, MAN, WAN, Network Topologies Reference models- The OSI

Reference Model- the TCP/IP Reference Model - A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP

Reference Models, OSI Vs TCP/IP.

Physical Layer –Introduction to Guided Media- Twisted-pair cable, Coaxial cable and Fiber optic cable and
introduction about unguided media.

Network Types, LAN, MAN, WAN

A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to share information (data) and
resources. The integration of computers and other different devices allows users to communicate more easily. It is a
collection of two or more computer systems that are linked together. A network connection can be established using
either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used to connect computers and tools in any network.

Types of Computer Networks

Computer networks are classified based on several factors, such as geographical area, ownership, architecture,
topology, and transmission technology. The below is the classification of the networks:

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network designed to connect devices within a short
range, typically around one person. It allows your personal devices, like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearables,
to communicate and share data with each other. PAN offers a network range of 1 to 10 meters from person to device
providing communication. Its transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost.

Examples of PAN are Bluetooth connection between a phone and wireless earbuds , Infrared communication between
TV and remote.
Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. It is a computer network that connects computers through a common
communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two or more computers
connected over a server. The two important technologies involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges
up to 2km & transmission speed is very high with easy maintenance and low cost.

Examples of LAN are Wi-Fi in a home or school, wired LAN in a company's office.

Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is usually used in places
like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area that is, it spreads across several buildings
within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range of few kilometers. Its transmission speed is very
high with a moderate maintenance cost and moderate cost.

Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that connects computers
over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan area. This
network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed
is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes with a high cost.

Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within multiple buildings, etc.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance through a shared
communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many locations. WAN can also be
defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each other with a range above 50km. Here we use
Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission speed is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and
very high cost.

Examples of WAN are the Internet (largest WAN), Banking networks linking global branches

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) :

WLAN is a type of computer network that acts as a local area network but makes use of wireless network technology
like Wi-Fi. This network doesn't allow devices to communicate over physical cables like in LAN but allows devices to
communicate wirelessly.

Most common example of WLAN is Wi-Fi.

System Area Network (SAN)

A System Area Network is designed to connect high-performance computers within a localized, high-speed
environment, such as in data centers or supercomputing facilities. A SAN provides access to block-level data storage.

Examples of SAN are a network of disks accessed by a network of servers.

Network Topologies Reference models

Point-to-Point Topology

Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches or routers, servers connected back to
back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is connected to sending end of the other and
vice-versa.
If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple intermediate devices. But the end hosts are
unaware of underlying network and see each other as if they are connected directly.

Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or [Link] topology may have problem while
multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes
one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does
not affect the other devices. But failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop functioning.

Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction and as soon as it reaches
the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line.

Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a point-to-point connection.
That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and hub. The hub device can be any of the following:

• Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater

• Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge

• Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all hosts to all other hosts fails. Every
communication between hosts, takes place through only the [Link] topology is not expensive as to connect one
more host, only one cable is required and configuration is simple.
Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular network structure.
When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through
all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the existing structure, the administrator may need only one more
extra cable.

Failure of any host results in failure of the whole [Link], every connection in the ring is a point of failure. There are
methods which employ one more backup ring.

Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple [Link] topology has hosts in point-to-point
connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts only.

Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-point links. Mesh
technology comes into two types:

• Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network. Thus for every new
host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the most reliable network structure among all network
topologies.

• Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts connect to each other
in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to provide reliability to some hosts out of all.

Tree Topology
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network topology in use [Link]
topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits properties of bus topology.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into
three types of network devices. The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached. The middle layer is
known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper layer and lower layer. The highest layer is known
as core layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes fork.

All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between [Link] to the Bus topology, if the root goes
down, then the entire network suffers [Link] it is not the single point of failure. Every connection serves as
point of failure, failing of which divides the network into unreachable segment.

Hybrid Topology
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid topology. Hybrid topology
inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.

The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining topologies may contain attributes of Star,
Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks
connected to them are mostly Star topology networks. Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology

The OSI Reference Model

OSI or Open System Interconnection model was developed by International Standards Organization (ISO), which
allows different communication systems to communicate via standard protocols. It gives a layered networking
framework that conceptualizes how communications should be done between heterogeneous systems.
The model divides the flow of data in a communication system into seven abstraction levels or seven interconnected
layers. The seven layers of the OSI Model are a physical layer, data link layer, network layer, transport layer, session
layer, presentation layer, and application layer, as shown in the following diagram

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.

• Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.

• When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the
Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

• Common physical layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Physical
Layer

Functions of the Physical Layer

• Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock
controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.

• Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 • Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e.
bus topology, star topology, or mesh topology.

• Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected devices. The
various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to
make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.

• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC
address.

• Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer
devices.

• The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of the
NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.

• The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire
asking, "Who has that IP address?" and the destination host will reply with its MAC address. Sublayers of Data
Link Layer

• Logical Link Control (LLC)

• Media Access Control (MAC)

Functions of the Data Link Layer

• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that
are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and
end of the frame.

• Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the
sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

• Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.

• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control
coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.

• Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the
data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The Network Layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks. It also
takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes
available.

• The sender and receiver's IP address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network
layer is referred to as Packet.

• Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

Functions of the Network Layer

• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of the network layer is known as routing.

• Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing
scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an
address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The Transport Layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer. The data in
the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message.

• The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits
the data if an error is found.

• Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.

• At the sender's side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs
Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data transmission.

• It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the
Network Layer.

• Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually.

• Example: when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the
default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.

• At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it
has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented
data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer and breaks the
message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header includes a
type of address called service point address or port address. Thus, by specifying this address, the transport
layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

• Connection-Oriented Service

• Connectionless Service

Layer 5: Session Layer

Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections, management of connections,
terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides authentication and security. Protocols used in the
Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.
Functions of the Session Layer

• Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use,
and terminate a connection.

• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in
the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly,
and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely, and data loss is avoided.

• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex
or full duplex.

Example

Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger application running in
their browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to create
the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted
into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

ThePresentation Layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network. Protocols used in the Presentation Layer
are TLS/SSL (Transport Layer Security / Secure Sockets Layer).JPEG, MPEG, GIF, are standards or formats used for
encoding data, which is part of the presentation layer’s role.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is
known as the ciphertext, and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.

• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Layer 7: Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application Layer which is implemented by the
network applications. These applications produce the data to be transferred over the network.

• This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the
received information to the user.

• Protocols used in the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.
 Application
Layer

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.

• Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

• File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to access files in a remote host,
retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files from a remote computer.

• Mail Services: Provide email service.

• Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for global information
about various objects and services.

How Data Flows in the OSI Model?

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI model. First data travels
down through 7 layers from the sender's end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver's end. Data flows through
the OSI model in a step-by-step process:

• Application Layer: Applications create the data.

• Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.

• Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.

• Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.

• Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.

• Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.

• Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.

Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly, and these steps are reversed
upon arrival.
The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It was developed by the DoD
(Department of Defence) in the 1960s. It is named after the two main protocols that are used in the model, namely,
TCP and IP. TCP stands for "Transmission Control Protocol" and IP stands for "Internet Protocol".

It is a framework that is used to model the communication in a network. It is mainly a collection of network protocols
and organization of these protocols in different layers for modeling the network.

Role of TCP/IP

One of its main goals is to make sure that the data sent by the sender arrives safely and correctly at the receiver’s
end. To do this, the data is broken down into smaller parts called packets before being sent. These packets travel
separately and are reassembled in the correct order when they reach the destination.

1. Application Layer

The Application Layer is the top layer of the TCP/IP model and the one closest to the user. This is where all the apps
you use like web browsers, email clients, or file sharing tools connect to the network.

Application
Layer

• It acts like a bridge between your software (like Chrome, Gmail, or WhatsApp) and the lower layers of the
network that actually send and receive data.

• It supports different protocols like HTTP (for websites), FTP (for file transfers), SMTP (for emails), and DNS (for
finding website addresses).

• It also manages things like data formatting, so both sender and receiver understand the data, encryption to
keep data safe, and session management to keep track of ongoing connections.
2. Transport Layer

The Transport Layer is responsible for making sure that data is sent reliably and in the correct order between devices.
It checks that the data you send like a message, file, or video arrives safely and completely.

This layer mainly uses two protocols: TCP and UDP, depending on whether the communication needs to be more
reliable or faster.

Transport Layers

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): TCP is used when data must be error-free, complete, and in order. Examples:
loading websites, downloading files, sending emails. It's features are:

• Checks for errors in data

• Resends lost or damaged data

• Ensures everything arrives in the right order

• Provides reliable, connection-oriented communication

UDP (User Datagram Protocol): UDP is used when speed is more important than perfect accuracy. Examples: live
streaming, online gaming, VoIP calls. It's features are:

• No error checking

• No retransmission of lost data

• No guarantee of order

• Fast and lightweight

3. Internet Layer

The Internet Layer (also known as the Network Layer) is responsible for routing data across different networks to
ensure it reaches the correct destination. While the Transport Layer handles "how" data is sent, the Internet Layer
handles "where" it goes.

It acts like the postal service of the network, taking segments from the Transport Layer and placing them into
"envelopes" called packets with a destination address.

• IP Addressing: Assigns unique IP addresses (like [Link]) to identify every device on the network.

• Routing: Calculates the most efficient path for packets to travel across the internet to reach their destination.
 • Main Protocols: IP, ICMP and ARP.

Internet Layer

4. Network Access (Link Layer)

The Internet Layer is used for finding the best path for data to travel across different networks so it can reach the right
destination. It works like a traffic controller, helping data packets move from one network to another until they reach
the correct device.

• Framing: Wraps IP packets into Frames and adds physical MAC addresses for local delivery.

• Physical Delivery: Converts digital bits (1s and 0s) into electrical signals, light pulses (fiber), or radio waves (Wi-
Fi).

• Hardware Interaction: Manages the actual Network Interface Cards (NIC), Ethernet cables, and wireless
drivers.

When Sending Data (From Sender to Receiver)

• Application Layer: Prepares user data using protocols like HTTP, FTP, or SMTP.

• Transport Layer (TCP/UDP): Breaks data into segments and ensures reliable (TCP) or fast (UDP) delivery.

• Internet Layer (IP): Adds IP addresses and decides the best route for each packet.

• Link Layer (Network Access Layer): Converts packets into frames and sends them over the physical network.
When Receiving Data (At the Destination)

• Link Layer: Receives bits from the network and rebuilds frames to pass to the next layer.

• Internet Layer: Checks the IP address, removes the IP header, and forwards data to the Transport Layer.

• Transport Layer: Reassembles segments, checks for errors, and ensures data is complete.

• Application Layer: Delivers the final data to the correct application (e.g., displays a web page in the browser).

Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models, OSI Vs TCP/IP.

Medium

TCP/IP
OSI

OSI represents Open System Interconnection. TCP/IP model represents the Transmission Control
P Internet Protocol.

OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard. TCP/IP model depends on standard protocols about
It an interaction gateway between the network t computer network has created. It is a connection
and user. pr assigns the network of hosts over the internet.

The OSI model was developed first, and then proto The protocols were created first and then built the T
created to fit the network architecture's needs. model.

It provides quality services. It does not provide quality services.

The OSI model represents defines administration, i
and conventions. It describes clearly which layer It does not mention the services, interfaces, and
p services. pro

OSI TCP/IP

The protocols of the OSI model are better unseenaThe TCP/IP model protocols are not hidden, and we
returned with another appropriate protocol quickl new protocol stack in it.

It is difficult as distinguished to TCP/IP. It is simpler than OSI.

It provides both connection and connectionless It provides connectionless transmission in the

or transmission in the network layer; however, netwo and supports connecting and connectionless-
only c oriented transmission in the transport oriente transmission in the transport layer.
layer.

It uses a vertical approach. It uses a horizontal approach.

The smallest size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. The smallest size of the TCP/IP header is 20 bytes.

Protocols are unknown in the OSI model and are re

while the technology modifies. In TCP/IP, returning protocol is not difficult.
Basic
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

7 layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, 5 layers: Physical, Data Link, Network/Internet,
Presentation, Application Transport, Application

No separate Session layer; handled in Application

Separate Session layer manages connections/synchronization
layer

Data formatting/encryption done within

Presentation layer handles data formatting/encryption
Application layer

Theoretical model developed by ISO for standardization Practical model developed by DoD for Internet use

Each layer strictly independent with clear interfaces Layers more integrated, less strict boundaries

No specific protocols defined, just functions Defines specific protocols: TCP, UDP, IP, HTTP, etc.

Used as reference for teaching/network design Actual protocol stack used by Internet globally

Developed specifically for ARPANET/Internet

Developed before widespread Internet use
implementation