SECTION 2-16

Drying
PROBLEM 16.1
A wet solid is dried from 35 to 10 per cent moisture under constant drying conditions
in 18 ks (5 h). If the equilibrium moisture content is 4 per cent and the critical moisture
content is 14 per cent, how long will it take to dry to 6 per cent moisture under the same
conditions?

Solution
See Volume 2, Example 16.1.

PROBLEM 16.2
Strips of a material 10 mm thick are dried under constant drying conditions from
28 per cent to 13 per cent moisture in 25 ks. If the equilibrium moisture content is
7 per cent, what is the time taken to dry 60 mm planks from 22 to 10 per cent moisture
under the same conditions, assuming no loss from the edges? All moisture contents are
expressed on the wet basis. The relation between E, the ratio of the average free moisture
content at time t to the initial free moisture content, and the parameter f is given by:
E 1 0.64 0.49 0.38 0.295 0.22 0.14
f 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7
where f = kt/ l 2 , k is a constant, t is the time in ks and 2l is the thickness of the sheet
of material in mm.

Solution
See Volume 2, Example 16.2.

PROBLEM 16.3
A granular material containing 40 per cent moisture is fed to a countercurrent rotary dryer
at 295 K and is withdrawn at 305 K containing 5 per cent moisture. The air supplied,
which contains 0.006 kg water vapour/kg of dry air, enters at 385 K and leaves at 310 K.
The dryer handles 0.125 kg/s wet stock.

222
Assuming that radiation losses amount to 20 kJ/kg of dry air used, determine the mass
flow of dry air supplied to the dryer and the humidity of the outlet air. The latent heat
of water vapour at 295 K = 2449 kJ/kg, the specific heat capacity of dried material =
0.88 kJ/kg K, the specific heat capacity of dry air = 1.00 kJ/kg K, and the specific heat
capacity of water vapour = 2.01 kJ/kg K.

Solution

See Volume 2, Example 16.3.

PROBLEM 16.4
1 Mg of dry mass of a non-porous solid is dried under constant drying conditions in an air
stream flowing at 0.75 m/s. The area of surface drying is 55 m2 . If the initial rate of drying
is 0.3 g/m2 s, how long will it take to dry the material from 0.15 to 0.025 kg water/kg dry
solid? The critical moisture content of the material may be taken as 0.125 kg water/kg
dry solid. If the air velocity were increased to 4.0 m/s, what would be the anticipated
saving in time if the process were surface-evaporation controlled?

Solution

During the constant rate period, that is whilst the moisture content falls from 0.15 to
0.125 kg/kg, the rate of drying is:

(dw/dt)/A = (0.3/1000) = 0.0003 kg/m2 s

At the start of the falling rate period, w = wc = 0.125 kg/kg

and: (dw/dt)/A = m(wc − we )

or: 0.0003 = m(0.125 − 0.025)
and: m = 0.003 kg/m2 s kg dry solid
= (0.003/1000) = 3.0 × 10−6 kg/m2 s Mg dry solid

The total drying time is given by equation 16.14:

t = (1/mA)[ln(fc /f ) + (f1 − fc )/fc ]

where: f = (0.025 − 0) = 0.025 kg/kg (taking we as zero)
fc = (0.125 − 0) = 0.125 kg/kg
f1 = (0.15 − 0) = 0.150 kg/kg
Thus: t = [1/(3.0 × 10−6 × 55)][ln(0.125/0.025) + (0.150 − 0.125)/0.125]
= 10,960 s or 10.96 ks (3 h)

223
 As a first approximation it may be assumed that the rate of evaporation is proportional
to the air velocity raised to the power of 0.8. For the second case, m may then be
calculated as:

m = (3.0 × 10−6 )(4.0/0.75)0.8 = (1.15 × 10−5 ) kg water/m2 s Mg dry solid

The time of drying is then:

t = [1/(1.15 × 10−5 × 55)](1.609 + 0.20) = 2860 s or 2.86 ks

and the time saved is therefore: (10.96 − 2.86) = 8.10 ks (2.25 h)

PROBLEM 16.5
A 100 kg batch of granular solids containing 30 per cent of moisture is to be dried in a
tray dryer to 15.5 per cent moisture by passing a current of air at 350 K tangentially across
its surface at the velocity of 1.8 m/s. If the constant rate of drying under these conditions
is 0.7 g/s m2 and the critical moisture content is 15 per cent, calculate the approximate
drying time. It may be assumed that the drying surface is 0.03 m2 /kg dry mass.

Solution
See Volume 2, Example 16.4.

PROBLEM 16.6
A flow of 0.35 kg/s of a solid is to be dried from 15 per cent to 0.5 per cent moisture
on a dry basis. The mean specific heat capacity of the solids is 2.2 kJ/kg deg K. It is
proposed that a co-current adiabatic dryer should be used with the solids entering at
300 K and, because of the heat sensitive nature of the solids, leaving at 325 K. Hot air
is available at 400 K with a humidity of 0.01 kg/kg dry air and the maximum allowable
mass velocity of the air is 0.95 kg/m2 s. What diameter and length should be specified for
the proposed dryer?

Solution
See Volume 2, Example 16.5.

PROBLEM 16.7
0.126 kg/s of a solid product containing 4 per cent water is produced in a dryer from
a wet feed containing 42 per cent water on a wet basis. Ambient air at 294 K and of
40 per cent relative humidity is heated to 366 K in a preheater before entering the dryer
from which it leaves at 60 per cent relative humidity. Assuming that the dryer operates

224
adiabatically, what must be the flowrate of air to the preheater and how much heat must
be added to the preheater? How will these values be affected if the air enters the dryer
at 340 K and sufficient heat is supplied within the dryer so that the air again leaves at
340 K with a relative humidity of 60 per cent?

Solution

From the humidity chart, Figure 13.4 in Volume 1, air at 294 K and of 40 per cent relative
humidity has a humidity of 0.006 kg/kg. This remains unchanged on heating to 366 K.
At the dryer inlet, the wet bulb temperature of the air is 306 K. In the dryer, the cooling
takes place along the adiabatic cooling line until 60 per cent relative humidity is reached.
At this point:

the humidity = 0.028 kg/kg and

the dry bulb temperature = 312 K.

The water picked up by 1 kg of dry air = (0.028 − 0.006) = 0.22 kg water/kg dry air.
The wet feed contains:

42 kg water/100 kg feed or 42/(100 − 42) = 0.725 kg water/kg dry solids

The product contains:

4 kg water/100 kg product or 4/(100 − 4) = 0.0417 kg water/kg dry solids.

Thus:
water evaporated = (0.725 − 0.0417) = 0.6833 kg/kg dry solids

The throughput of dry solids is:

0.126(100 − 4)/100 = 0.121 kg/s

and the water evaporated is:

(0.121 × 0.6833) = 0.0825 kg/s

The required air throughput is then:

0.0825/(0.078 − 0.006) = 3.76 kg/s

At 294 K, from Figure 13.4 in Volume 1:

specific volume of the air = 0.84 m3 /kg

and the volume of air required is:

(0.84 × 3.76) = 3.16 m3 /s

225
 At a humidity of 0.006 kg water/kg dry air, from Figure 13.4, the humid heat is
1.02 kJ/kg deg K and hence the heat required in the preheater is:
3.76 × 1.02(366 − 294) = 276 kW

In the second case, air both enters and leaves at 340 K, the outlet humidity is 0.111 kg
water/kg dry air and the water picked up by the air is:
(0.111 − 0.006) = 0.105 kg/kg dry air
The air requirements are then:
(0.0825/0.105) = 0.786 kg/s or (0.786 × 0.84) = 0.66 m3 /s

The heat to be added in the preheater is:

0.66 × 1.02(340 − 294) = 31.0 kW

The heat to be supplied within the dryer is that required to heat the water to 340 K plus
its latent heat at 340 K.
That is: 0.0825[4.18(340 − 290) + 2345] = 211 kW
Thus: Total heat to be supplied = (81 + 211) = 242 kW .

PROBLEM 16.8
A wet solid is dried from 40 to 8 per cent moisture in 20 ks. If the critical and the
equilibrium moisture contents are 15 and 4 per cent respectively, how long will it take
to dry the solid to 5 per cent moisture under the some drying conditions? All moisture
contents are on a dry basis.

Solution
For the first drying operation:
w1 = 0.40 kg/kg, w = 0.08 kg/kg, wc = 0.15 kg/kg and we = 0.04 kg/kg
Thus: f1 = (w1 − we ) = (0.40 − 0.04) = 0.36 kg/kg
fc = (wc − we ) = (0.15 − 0.04) = 0.11 kg/kg
f = (w − we ) = (0.08 − 0.04) = 0.04 kg/kg.
From equation 16.14, the total drying time is:
t = (1/mA)[(f1 − fc )/fc + ln(fc /f )]
or: 20 = (1/mA)[(0.36 − 0.11)/0.11 + ln(0.11/0.04)
and: mA = 0.05(2.27 + 1.012) = 0.164 kg/ks

226
For the second drying operation:

w1 = 0.40 kg/kg, w = 0.05 kg/kg, wc = 0.15 kg/kg, and we = 0.04 kg/kg

Thus: f1 = (w1 − we ) = (0.40 − 0.04) = 0.36 kg/kg
fe = (wc − we ) = (0.15 − 0.04) = 0.11 kg/kg
f = (w − we ) = (0.05 − 0.04) = 0.01 kg/kg

The total drying time is then:

t = (1/0.164)[(0.36 − 0.11)/0.11 + ln(0.11/0.01)]
= 6.098(2.273 + 2.398)
= 28.48 ks (7.9 h)

PROBLEM 16.9
A solid is to be dried from 1 kg water/kg dry solids to 0.01 kg water/kg dry solids in
a tray dryer consisting of a single tier of 50 trays, each 0.02 m deep and 0.7 m square
completely filled with wet material. The mean air temperature is 350 K and the relative
humidity across the trays may be taken as constant at 10 per cent. The mean air velocity
is 2.0 m/s and the convective coefficient of heat transfer is given by:

hc = 14.3G 0.8 W/m2 deg K

where G is the mass velocity of the air in kg/m2 s. The critical and equilibrium moisture
contents of the solid are 0.3 and 0 kg water/kg dry solids respectively and the bulk density
of the dry solid is 6000 kg/m3 . Assuming that the drying is by convection from the top
surface of the trays only, what is the drying time?

Solution
From Figure 13.4 in Volume 1, the specific volume of moist air at 350 K and 10 per cent
relative humidity is 1.06 m3 /kg.
Thus:
mass velocity, G = (2.0/1.06) = 1.88 kg/m2 s

and:
convective heat transfer coefficient, hc = (14.3 × 1.880.8 )
= 23.8 W/m2 K or 0.0238 kW/m2 K.

If it may be assumed that the temperature of the surface is equal to the wet bulb temper-
ature of the air which, from Figure 13.4, is 317 K, then:

mean temperature driving force, T = (350 − 317) = 33 deg K.

227
The area of the top surface of the trays is:
A = (50 × 0.72 ) = 24.5 m2
From steam tables in the Appendix of Volume 2, the latent heat of vaporisation of water
at 317 K is λ = 2395 kJ/kg.
The drying rate during the constant drying period is then given by:
W = hc AT /λ (equation 16.9)
or: W = (0.0238 × 24.5 × 33)/2359
= 0.00816 kg/s
The total volume of dry material is:
(50 × 0.72 × 0.02) = 0.49 m3
and the mass of dry material is:
(0.49 × 6000) = 2940 kg
The rate of drying during the constant rate period is then:
Rc = 0.00816/(2940 × 24.5) = 1.133 × 10−7 kg water/m2 s kg dry solid
In this problem:
w1 = 1.0 kg/kg, w = 0.01 kg/kg, wc = 0.3 kg/kg and we = 0

Thus: f1 = (w1 − we ) = (1.0 − 0) = 1.0 kg/kg

fc = (wc − we ) = (0.3 − 0) = 0.3 kg/kg
and: f = (w − we ) = (0.01 − 0) = 0.01 kg/kg
From equation 16.13:
Rc = mfc
or: 1.133 × 10−7 = m × 0.3
and: m = 3.78 × 10−7
Thus, in equation 16.14, the total drying time is:
t = [1/(3.78 × 10−7 × 24.5)][(1.0 − 0.3)/0.3 + ln(0.3/0.01)]
= 1.081 × 105 (2.33 + 3.40)
= 6.19 × 105 s or 619 ks (172 h)

PROBLEM 16.10
Skeins of a synthetic fibre are dried from 46 per cent to 8.5 per cent moisture on a
wet basis in a 10 m long tunnel dryer by a countercurrent flow of hot air. The air mass

228
velocity, G is 1.36 kg/m2 s and the inlet conditions are 355 K and a humidity of 0.03 kg
moisture/kg dry air. The air temperature is maintained at 355 K throughout the dryer by
internal heating and, at the outlet, the humidity of the air is 0.08 kg moisture/kg dry air.
The equilibrium moisture content is given by:

we = 0.25 (per cent relative humidity)

and the drying rate by:

R = 1.34 × 10−4 G 1.47 (w − we )(Hw − H ) kg/s kg dry fibres

where H is the humidity of dry air and Hw the saturation humidity at the wet bulb
temperature. Data relating w, H and Hw are as follows:
w H Hw relative humidity
(kg/kg dry fibre) (kg/kg dry air) (kg/kg dry air) (per cent)
0.852 0.080 0.095 22.4
0.80 0.0767 0.092 21.5
0.60 0.0635 0.079 18.2
0.40 0.0503 0.068 14.6
0.20 0.0371 0.055 11.1
0.093 0.030 0.049 9.0
At what velocity should the skeins be passed through the dryer?

Solution
For G = 1.36 kg/m2 s, the rate of drying is given by:
R = 1.34 × 10−4 × 1.361.47 (w − we )(Hw − H )
= −2.11 × 10−4 (we − w)(Hw − H ) kg/s kg dry fibre

The working is now laid out in tabular form, noting that an inlet moisture content of
46.0 per cent on a wet basis is equivalent to:

46.0/(100 − 46.0) = 0.852 kg/kg dry fibre.

and an outlet moisture content of 8.5 per cent on a wet basis is equivalent to:

8.5/(100 − 8.5) = 0.093 kg/kg dry fibre.

w (kg/kg dry fibre) 0.852 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.093
relative humidity
(per cent) 22.4 21.5 18.2 14.6 11.1 9.0
we (kg/kg dry fibre)
(= 0.25 RH/100) 0.056 0.054 0.046 0.037 0.028 0.023
(w − we ) (kg/kg
dry fibre) 0.794 0.746 0.537 0.363 0.172 0.070

229
Hw (kg/kg dry air) 0.095 0.092 0.079 0.068 0.055 0.049
H (kg/kg dry air) 0.0800 0.0767 0.0635 0.0503 0.0371 0.0300
(Hw − H ) (kg/kg
dry air) 0.0150 0.0153 0.0155 0.0177 0.0179 0.0190
R (kg/s kg dry
fibre) −0.0112 −0.0103 −0.0076 −0.0043 −0.0020 −0.0008
1/R (kg dry fibre
s/kg) −89.0 −97.0 −132 −233 −500 −1250

Because R/w is equal to the drying time in s, the area under a plot of 1/R and w is the
drying time. Such a plot is shown in Figure 16a from which the area between w = 0.852
and w = 0.093 kg/kg is equivalent to 203 s.
−1/R (s kg dry solid / kg water)

800 Area under curve = 202.8 s

600

400

200
w = 0.093 w = 0.852
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Moisture content (w kg water / kg dry solids)
Figure 16a. Drying curve for Problem 16.10

Thus:
the velocity at which material should be passed through the dryers

= (10/203) = 0.0494 or 0.05 m/s

230