EXAM-READY NOTES

Environmental Studies
Unit II – Complete Notes

Subject Topics Marks Level

EVS – Unit II Pollution · Waste · Fireworks · Case Studies 5 · 8 · 10 Mark Qs [Link]. Undergraduate

Table of Contents — Unit II

1. Environmental Pollution — Definition, Causes, Effects, Control

2. Air Pollution — Sources, Effects, Control Measures

3. Water Pollution — Sources, Effects, Control Measures

4. Soil Pollution — Causes, Effects, Control Measures

5. Marine Pollution — Causes, Effects, Control Measures

6. Noise Pollution — Causes, Effects, Control Measures

7. Thermal Pollution — Causes, Effects, Control Measures

8. Nuclear Hazards — Causes, Effects, Control Measures

9. Solid Waste Management — Urban & Industrial Waste

10. Fireworks — Impacts & Hazards

11. Case Studies — Air, Water, Nuclear Pollution

1 Environmental Pollution — Overview

5 marks

DEFINITION

Environmental Pollution is defined as the introduction of harmful substances or energy

into the environment — air, water, or soil — by human activities or natural processes, which
causes adverse effects on living organisms and the ecosystem.

INTRODUCTION

The term pollution comes from the Latin word pollutionem meaning "defilement." A pollutant is
any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or form of energy (heat, sound, radiation) that, when present in
excess, causes harmful effects. The Industrial Revolution marked the beginning of large-scale
environmental pollution. Today, pollution is recognised as one of the most critical global
environmental challenges.

CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTION
 Based On Types

Medium Air, Water, Soil, Marine, Noise, Thermal, Nuclear/Radiation

affected

Origin Natural (volcanic eruption, forest fire) vs Anthropogenic (human-made)

Source Point Source (single identifiable source — factory chimney) vs Non-Point Source
(diffuse — agricultural runoff)

Degradability Biodegradable pollutants (sewage) vs Non-biodegradable pollutants (plastics, DDT)

POINT SOURCE VS NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION

Aspect Point Source Non-Point Source

Definition Pollution from a single, identifiable source Pollution from multiple diffuse
sources

Traceability Easily identified and monitored Difficult to identify and control

Examples Factory discharge pipe, power plant Agricultural runoff, urban stormwater
chimney

Regulation Easier to regulate (via permits) Harder to regulate

Conclusion: Thus, environmental pollution is an all-pervading problem threatening the health

of the planet and all its inhabitants. It can be concluded that understanding its types, sources,
and effects is the first essential step towards effective mitigation and environmental
management.

Air Pollution 10 marks

2

DEFINITION

Air Pollution is the presence of harmful gases, particles, or biological molecules in the
atmosphere in concentrations sufficient to cause damage to human health, animals, vegetation,
and the built environment.

INTRODUCTION

The atmosphere is a mixture of N2 (78%), O2 (21%), Ar (0.9%), CO2 (0.04%), and trace gases.
When the natural composition is altered by pollutants, air pollution occurs. According to the
WHO (2022), air pollution causes approximately 7 million premature deaths annually —
making it the world's single largest environmental health risk.

⚗ MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS

Pollutant Sources Effects

CO (Carbon Monoxide) Incomplete combustion, Binds haemoglobin; asphyxiation

vehicles
 SO2 (Sulphur Dioxide) Coal burning, smelting Acid rain, respiratory disease

NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) Vehicle exhaust, power Smog, acid rain, lung damage
plants

Particulate Matter Dust, smoke, construction Lung cancer, cardiovascular

(PM2.5/PM10) disease

Hydrocarbons (VOCs) Petrol evaporation, industries Photochemical smog,

carcinogenic

CO2, CH4, N2O Fossil fuels, agriculture Greenhouse effect, global

warming

CFCs Refrigerants, aerosols Ozone layer depletion

⚠ CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION

▸ Industrial Emissions: Factories, thermal power plants, and smelters release SO2, NOx, CO,
and particulate matter.

▸ Vehicular Pollution: Automobiles are the largest source of CO, NOx, and hydrocarbons in
urban areas.

▸ Combustion of Fossil Fuels: Burning coal, oil, and natural gas releases CO2, SO2, and fly ash.

▸ Agricultural Activities: Burning of crop stubble releases CO, particulate matter, and NH3.

▸ Mining Operations: Release of dust, methane, and radioactive particles.

▸ Natural Sources: Volcanic eruptions (SO2, ash), forest fires (CO, smoke), dust storms, pollen.

▸ Deforestation: Reduces CO2 absorption capacity, increases greenhouse effect.

▸ Domestic Sources: Burning firewood, dung cakes, and coal for cooking in rural areas — indoor
air pollution.

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

A. Human Health Effects:

▸ Respiratory Diseases: Asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer — caused by PM2.5, SO2,
and NOx.

▸ Cardiovascular Diseases: Fine particles enter bloodstream, increasing risk of heart attacks
and strokes.

▸ Carbon Monoxide Poisoning: CO binds with haemoglobin, reducing oxygen transport —

causes headache, dizziness, death.

▸ Neurological Damage: Lead (from leaded petrol) and mercury cause brain damage, especially
in children.

▸ Eye and Skin Irritation: Smog and chemical vapours cause eye redness, skin rashes.

▸ Cancer: Long-term exposure to benzene, arsenic, and particulates causes lung cancer.

B. Environmental Effects:

▸ Acid Rain: SO2 + H2O → H2SO4 (sulphuric acid); NOx + H2O → HNO3. Damages forests, crops,
aquatic life, and stone monuments (e.g., Taj Mahal).

▸ Global Warming: CO2, CH4, N2O create the greenhouse effect, raising global temperatures.

▸ Ozone Layer Depletion: CFCs destroy stratospheric ozone, increasing UV radiation — causes
skin cancer, cataracts, crop damage.

▸ Photochemical Smog: NOx + VOCs + sunlight → ozone + PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate) — causes
 lung irritation, reduced visibility.

▸ Eutrophication: Nitrogen deposition in water bodies promotes algae growth, depleting oxygen.

▸ Damage to Vegetation: SO2 and fluoride damage plant leaves, reduce crop yield.

✅ CONTROL MEASURES FOR AIR POLLUTION

▸ Use of Clean Fuels: CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), LPG, hydrogen fuel cells, and biofuels
instead of diesel and coal.

▸ Catalytic Converters: Fitted in vehicles — convert CO, NOx, and hydrocarbons into CO2, N2,
and H2O.

▸ Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP): Remove 99% of particulate matter from industrial chimney
emissions using electric charge.

▸ Scrubbers (Wet Scrubbers): Use water or chemical spray to remove SO2 and dust from
industrial flue gases.

▸ Bag Filters (Fabric Filters): Trap particulate matter before gases are released from chimneys.

▸ Cyclone Separators: Use centrifugal force to separate heavy particles from gas streams.

▸ Vehicular Emission Standards: BS-VI (Bharat Stage VI) norms — limit NOx and PM from
vehicles in India.

▸ Afforestation: Planting trees to absorb CO2, filter dust, and release oxygen.

▸ Promoting Public Transport: Reduces the number of private vehicles on roads, lowering
emissions.

▸ Renewable Energy: Replacing coal-based power plants with solar, wind, and hydroelectric
power.

▸ Legislation: Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 — India; Clean Air Act — USA.

⚡ F LOW CHART: AIR POL LUTION PATHW AY

Industrial Emissions + Vehicular Exhaust + Agricultural Burning

↓
Air Pollution (SO2, NOx, PM, CO)

↓
Acid Rain | Smog | Global Warming | Health Effects

↓
Clean Fuels + Scrubbers/ESP + Legislation → Control

Conclusion: Thus, air pollution is a multifaceted environmental crisis with severe

consequences for human health and ecological systems. It can be concluded that an integrated
approach combining technological innovation, clean energy adoption, stringent legislation,
and public awareness is essential for effectively controlling air pollution.
 3 Water Pollution
10 marks

DEFINITION

Water Pollution is the contamination of water bodies — rivers, lakes, groundwater, and
oceans — by harmful substances such that water becomes unfit for drinking, aquatic life,
irrigation, and other human uses.

INTRODUCTION

Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface, yet only 2.5% is freshwater, and only 0.3% is readily
accessible. Water pollution threatens this already scarce resource. India's major rivers — Ganga,
Yamuna, and Damodar — are among the most polluted in the world. The WHO estimates that
about 2 billion people consume contaminated drinking water globally.

⚠ CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION

▸ Industrial Effluents: Factories discharge toxic chemicals, heavy metals (Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr), acids,
and dyes into rivers and lakes.

▸ Domestic Sewage: Untreated sewage containing organic matter, pathogens, detergents, and
nitrates is released directly into water bodies.

▸ Agricultural Runoff: Fertilisers (nitrates, phosphates) and pesticides (DDT, Endosulfan) wash
into rivers and lakes, causing eutrophication and toxicity.

▸ Oil Spills: Accidental or deliberate release of petroleum from tankers and offshore oil rigs into
oceans.

▸ Mining Activities: Acid mine drainage — sulphides react with water to form sulphuric acid,
releasing heavy metals into groundwater.

▸ Solid Waste Dumping: Garbage, plastics, and e-waste dumped near water bodies leach toxic
substances into groundwater.

▸ Radioactive Waste: Nuclear power plants and hospitals discharge low-level radioactive
wastewater.

▸ Thermal Discharge: Hot water from power plants raises water temperature, reducing
dissolved oxygen.

▸ Religious and Cultural Activities: Idol immersion, bathing, and washing in rivers add organic
and chemical pollutants (e.g., Ganga).

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

A. Human Health Effects:

▸ Waterborne Diseases: Cholera, typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis A, and gastroenteritis — caused

by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and protozoa in contaminated water.

▸ Heavy Metal Poisoning: Mercury → Minamata disease (Japan); Lead → neurological damage;
Cadmium → Itai-Itai disease (bone pain).

▸ Fluorosis: Excess fluoride in groundwater causes dental and skeletal fluorosis.

▸ Arsenicosis: Arsenic-contaminated groundwater in West Bengal and Bangladesh causes skin

lesions, cancer.

▸ Nitrate Poisoning: Excess nitrates in drinking water cause methemoglobinaemia (blue

baby syndrome) in infants.

B. Environmental Effects:
▸ Eutrophication: Excess nitrates and phosphates cause algal blooms (algae overgrowth),
depleting dissolved oxygen → fish kills.

▸ Biomagnification: Non-biodegradable pollutants (DDT, mercury) accumulate in successive

trophic levels — highest concentrations in top carnivores (eagles, dolphins).

▸ Aquatic Biodiversity Loss: Toxic pollutants kill fish, invertebrates, and aquatic plants.

▸ Soil Contamination: Contaminated irrigation water pollutes agricultural soil, reducing

fertility.

▸ Groundwater Depletion: Overextraction and contamination permanently damage aquifer

quality.

✅ CONTROL MEASURES FOR WATER POLLUTION

▸ Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs): Three-stage treatment — Primary (physical settling),

Secondary (biological — activated sludge), Tertiary (chemical — chlorination, UV) — before
discharge.

▸ Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs): Industrial wastewater treated at source before discharge
into water bodies.

▸ Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD): Industries treat and reuse 100% of wastewater — no liquid
effluent released.

▸ Bioremediation: Using bacteria, fungi, and plants to degrade or immobilise pollutants in water
(phytoremediation using water hyacinth).

▸ Constructed Wetlands: Artificial wetlands filter polluted water naturally using plants and
microbes.

▸ Restriction on Chemical Use: Promoting organic farming to reduce pesticide and fertiliser
runoff.

▸ Rainwater Harvesting: Reduces pressure on groundwater and prevents urban runoff pollution.

▸ River Conservation Programs: Namami Gange (National Mission for Clean Ganga, 2014) —
India's flagship river cleaning programme.

▸ Legislation: Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 — India; Clean Water Act —
USA. Discharge standards set by CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board).

▸ Public Awareness: Educating communities to stop open defecation, dumping waste in rivers,
and overuse of chemicals.

FL OWC HAR T: SEWAG E TREA TMENT PROCESS

Raw Sewage → Primary Treatment (Screening + Settling) →

Secondary Treatment (Biological — Activated Sludge) → Tertiary Treatment (Chlorination/UV) →
Clean Water Released

Conclusion: Thus, water pollution is a grave threat to human health and aquatic ecosystems.
It can be concluded that stringent treatment of wastewater at industrial and domestic levels,
combined with legislative enforcement and public responsibility, is the only sustainable path
to protecting this vital natural resource.

Soil Pollution 8 marks

4
 4

DEFINITION

Soil Pollution (Land Pollution) is the degradation of soil quality by introduction of harmful
chemicals, biological agents, or physical disturbances that adversely affect soil fertility,
human health, and the ecosystem.

INTRODUCTION

Soil is a non-renewable resource that takes hundreds to thousands of years to form. It supports
95% of global food production . Soil pollution directly threatens food security, groundwater
quality, and terrestrial biodiversity. About 33% of the world's soils are degraded, according to the
FAO (2015).

⚠ CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION

▸ Excessive Use of Agrochemicals: Pesticides (DDT, BHC), herbicides, and chemical fertilisers
(urea, DAP) accumulate in soil, killing beneficial microorganisms.

▸ Industrial Waste Disposal: Dumping of chemical sludge, heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr), and
toxic by-products directly on land.

▸ Solid Waste Dumping: Open dumping of municipal solid waste, plastics, and e-waste leaches
toxins into soil.

▸ Mining: Strip mining, coal mining — leaves land barren; acid drainage and heavy metal
contamination of topsoil.

▸ Sewage Sludge: Application of untreated sewage sludge as fertiliser introduces pathogens,

heavy metals, and pharmaceuticals.

▸ Radioactive Waste: Nuclear testing and improper disposal of radioactive materials

contaminate soil for centuries.

▸ Oil Spills on Land: Petroleum hydrocarbon contamination kills soil microbes and plants.

▸ Acid Rain: Lowers soil pH, leaches nutrients, and increases toxic metal availability.

EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION

▸ Loss of Soil Fertility: Pesticides and heavy metals kill beneficial soil microbes and
earthworms, disrupting nutrient cycling.

▸ Crop Contamination: Plants absorb heavy metals and pesticides — enter the food chain and
cause human health problems.

▸ Groundwater Contamination: Toxic chemicals leach downward into aquifers, polluting

drinking water sources.

▸ Desertification: Degraded soil becomes barren and unable to support vegetation — contributes
to desertification.

▸ Biodiversity Loss: Soil organisms (bacteria, fungi, earthworms) that maintain soil health are
killed by chemical pollutants.

▸ Human Health: Direct skin contact, inhalation of contaminated dust, or consumption of

contaminated food causes heavy metal poisoning, cancer, and neurological disorders.

✅ CONTROL MEASURES FOR SOIL POLLUTION

▸ Bioremediation: Using microorganisms to degrade soil contaminants — bacteria

(Pseudomonas) break down petroleum hydrocarbons.

▸ Phytoremediation: Using plants like sunflower, mustard, and Indian mustard to absorb heavy
 metals from contaminated soil.

▸ Organic Farming: Replacing chemical fertilisers and pesticides with compost, vermicompost,
and bio-pesticides.

▸ Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Combining biological control, crop rotation, and
minimal chemical use to reduce pesticide dependence.

▸ Proper Waste Disposal: Scientifically designed sanitary landfills with liners to prevent
leaching; composting of organic waste.

▸ Soil pH Management: Liming to neutralise acid soils damaged by acid rain or mining.

▸ Afforestation and Revegetation: Planting trees and grasses stabilises degraded soil and
prevents erosion.

▸ Legislation: Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2008 — India; Superfund
Act (CERCLA) — USA, for cleaning contaminated land.

Conclusion: Thus, soil pollution silently erodes the very foundation of terrestrial ecosystems
and food security. Hence, transitioning to sustainable agriculture, scientific waste disposal,
and bioremediation techniques is critically necessary to restore soil health for future
generations.

5 Marine Pollution
8 marks

DEFINITION

Marine Pollution is the introduction of harmful substances — chemicals, industrial waste,

plastics, oil, and radioactive materials — into the ocean from human activities, causing
damage to marine ecosystems and coastal communities.

INTRODUCTION

The oceans cover 71% of the Earth's surface and contain 97% of all water. They regulate climate,
produce 50% of Earth's oxygen (via phytoplankton), and support over one million species .
Despite their vastness, oceans are severely threatened by pollution. Over 8 million tonnes of
plastic enter the ocean annually. The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is twice the size of Texas.

⚠ CAUSES OF MARINE POLLUTION

▸ Oil Spills: Accidents involving oil tankers, offshore drilling platforms, and pipelines release
massive quantities of crude oil.

▸ Plastic Waste: Single-use plastics (bags, bottles, straws) accumulate in ocean gyres — break
into microplastics ingested by marine life.

▸ Industrial Effluents: Coastal factories discharge heavy metals, PCBs, and toxic chemicals
directly into the sea.

▸ Agricultural Runoff: Fertilisers and pesticides carried by rivers reach the ocean — cause
coastal eutrophication and dead zones .

▸ Sewage Discharge: Untreated domestic and urban sewage discharged into coastal waters
introduces pathogens and nutrients.

▸ Radioactive Waste: Low-level radioactive waste historically dumped in deep oceans by nuclear
nations.
▸ Ship Ballast Water: Ships release ballast water carrying invasive species into new marine
environments.

▸ Atmospheric Deposition: Air pollutants (mercury, persistent organic pollutants) deposit into
the ocean via rain.

EFFECTS OF MARINE POLLUTION

▸ Oil Spill Effects: Creates oil slick — blocks sunlight, coats seabirds, suffocates fish and coral,
kills marine mammals. Takes decades to recover.

▸ Plastic Ingestion: Sea turtles, whales, dolphins, and seabirds mistake plastic for food — causes
starvation, internal injury, and death.

▸ Coral Reef Destruction: Sedimentation, chemical pollution, and nutrient overload bleach and
kill coral reefs.

▸ Dead Zones (Hypoxic Zones): Excess nutrients fuel algal blooms that deplete oxygen,
suffocating all marine life. Example: Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone.

▸ Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification: Mercury, PCBs, and DDT accumulate in fish — top
predators (tuna, sharks, humans) receive highest doses.

▸ Human Health: Consuming contaminated seafood causes mercury poisoning, chemical toxicity,
and infectious disease.

▸ Economic Loss: Decline in fisheries, damage to tourism, and coastal contamination cost
billions annually.

✅ CONTROL MEASURES FOR MARINE POLLUTION

▸ Oil Spill Management: Containment booms to confine oil; skimmers to remove oil from
surface; dispersants to chemically break up oil; bioremediation using oil-degrading bacteria.

▸ Plastic Reduction: Ban on single-use plastics; promoting biodegradable alternatives; beach

clean-up drives.

▸ Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Designated zones where human activities are restricted to
allow ecosystem recovery.

▸ Regulation of Ship Discharges: MARPOL Convention (International Convention for the

Prevention of Pollution from Ships) — strictly regulates oil, sewage, and garbage discharge by
ships.

▸ Wastewater Treatment: Treating sewage and industrial effluents before they reach coastal
waters.

▸ Legislation: UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea); Environment
Protection Act, 1986 — India.

C ASE ST UDY : DEEPWA TER HO RIZON OIL SP ILL (2010)

The BP Deepwater Horizon explosion in the Gulf of Mexico (April 2010) released
approximately 4.9 million barrels of crude oil — the largest accidental marine oil spill in
history. It killed 11 workers, affected 1,300 miles of coastline, devastated fisheries, and killed
thousands of marine animals including dolphins, sea turtles, and seabirds. The clean-up cost
BP over USD 65 billion. It highlighted the catastrophic risk of deep-sea drilling and the need
for stringent safety and environmental regulations.

Conclusion: Thus, marine pollution threatens the health of the largest and most diverse
ecosystem on Earth. It can be concluded that only through international cooperation, strict
maritime laws, reduction of plastic waste at source, and active coastal management can the
health of our oceans be preserved for future generations.
 6 Noise Pollution
8 marks

DEFINITION

Noise Pollution is defined as unwanted, excessive, or disturbing sound in the environment

that causes physical and psychological harm to humans and disrupts the behaviour of animals.
Sound above 85 decibels (dB) is considered harmful.

INTRODUCTION

Sound is measured in decibels (dB) using a logarithmic scale. The threshold of human hearing is 0
dB; normal conversation is 60 dB; a jet engine is 140 dB. The Noise Pollution (Regulation and
Control) Rules, 2000 in India prescribe ambient noise standards — 55 dB (day) / 45 dB (night) for
residential areas. The WHO has identified noise as the second largest environmental health
risk in Europe after air pollution.

⚠ CAUSES OF NOISE POLLUTION

▸ Transportation: Road traffic, railway noise, aircraft noise near airports — the major source of
urban noise pollution.

▸ Industrial Machinery: Heavy machinery, compressors, generators, and pneumatic drills in

factories and construction sites.

▸ Loudspeakers and Public Address Systems: Religious gatherings, elections, and public
events using high-powered speakers.

▸ Fireworks and Crackers: Produce extremely high-intensity noise (above 140 dB) during
festivals.

▸ Agricultural Equipment: Tractors, threshers, and irrigation pumps in rural areas.

▸ Domestic Sources: Television, music systems, generators, and household appliances.

▸ Mining and Blasting: Explosive blasting in quarries and mines produces intense ground and
air vibration.

NOISE LEVELS REFERENCE TABLE

Source Sound Level (dB) Effect

Whisper 20–30 dB No harm

Normal conversation 60 dB Comfortable

Heavy traffic 80–90 dB Hearing risk with prolonged exposure

Industrial machinery 100 dB Hearing damage after 15 min

Fireworks / Crackers 120–150 dB Immediate pain and ear damage

Jet engine 140 dB Eardrum rupture

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

A. On Humans:

▸ Noise-Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL): Prolonged exposure above 85 dB permanently damages

cochlear hair cells — irreversible hearing loss.

▸ Cardiovascular Effects: Chronic noise exposure raises blood pressure, heart rate, and risk of
 myocardial infarction.

▸ Sleep Disturbance: Night-time noise disrupts sleep cycles, causing fatigue, irritability, and
reduced immunity.

▸ Psychological Effects: Anxiety, stress, aggression, depression, and reduced concentration.

▸ Tinnitus: Persistent ringing in the ears after exposure to loud noise.

▸ Cognitive Impairment in Children: Children near airports and highways show reduced
reading ability, memory, and attention.

B. On Animals:

▸ Disrupts animal communication — whales and dolphins use sonar; sonar interference from
ships causes beaching (stranding).

▸ Birds abandon nests; aquatic animals lose prey-detection ability.

▸ Affects mating, migration, and feeding behaviour of wildlife.

✅ CONTROL MEASURES FOR NOISE POLLUTION

▸ Source Reduction: Use of noise-reducing machinery, mufflers on vehicles, and silencers on

generators.

▸ Sound Barriers: Constructing acoustic walls along highways, airports, and railway lines to
deflect noise.

▸ Green Belts: Planting dense trees and shrubs between noise sources and residential areas —
trees absorb sound (10–15 dB reduction).

▸ Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Ear plugs and ear muffs for industrial workers
exposed to high noise levels.

▸ Regulations on Loudspeakers: Restricting use of amplified sound beyond specified hours and
decibel limits.

▸ Urban Planning: Locating industries away from residential areas; constructing hospitals and
schools in quiet zones.

▸ Legislation: Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000 — India; sets limits for
silence zones (hospitals, schools: 50 dB day / 40 dB night).

▸ Public Awareness: Discouraging unnecessary honking, avoiding late-night events with loud
music.

Conclusion: Thus, noise pollution, often underestimated, is a serious environmental and

public health concern that silently damages physical and mental health. Hence, a combination
of engineering controls, green infrastructure, strict legislation, and individual responsibility is
essential for creating a noise-free, healthy living environment.

Thermal Pollution 5 marks

7

DEFINITION

Thermal Pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes the
ambient water temperature , usually caused by the discharge of hot water from industrial or
power plant cooling systems into natural water bodies.
 INTRODUCTION

Thermal power plants and nuclear reactors use water for cooling their condenser coils. This water,
after absorbing heat, is returned to the river or lake at a temperature 8–10°C higher than the
ambient water. This seemingly small rise in temperature has profound biological consequences
on aquatic life.

⚠ CAUSES OF THERMAL POLLUTION

▸ Thermal Power Plants: The largest source — hot water from steam condensers discharged
into rivers.

▸ Nuclear Power Plants: Produce large quantities of waste heat released via cooling water.

▸ Industrial Cooling Systems: Steel mills, paper factories, and chemical plants use water for
cooling — return it at elevated temperatures.

▸ Deforestation near Water Bodies: Removal of riparian vegetation exposes water to direct
sunlight, raising temperature naturally.

▸ Urban Runoff: Hot water from urban heat islands (roads, buildings) draining into streams.

EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION

▸ Reduced Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Warm water holds less oxygen — aquatic organisms
(especially fish) suffer from oxygen deficiency and die. Every 10°C rise in temperature halves
the DO.

▸ Metabolic Disruption: Aquatic organisms (poikilotherms — cold-blooded) have temperature-

dependent metabolism. Sudden changes disrupt enzymatic activity and reproductive cycles.

▸ Thermal Shock: Sudden temperature changes kill fish, amphibians, and invertebrates
instantly.

▸ Algal Blooms: Warm water promotes growth of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), further
depleting oxygen and producing toxins.

▸ Coral Bleaching: A rise of just 1–2°C above normal causes coral to expel symbiotic algae
(zooxanthellae) → coral bleaching and death.

▸ Species Migration: Heat-sensitive species migrate to cooler areas, disrupting local ecological
balance.

▸ Invasion of Warm-Water Species: Thermal discharge creates favourable conditions for warm-
water species, which outcompete native cold-water species.

✅ CONTROL MEASURES FOR THERMAL POLLUTION

▸ Cooling Towers and Ponds: Hot water is passed through cooling towers (evaporative cooling)
or stored in cooling ponds before discharge — reduces temperature to acceptable levels.

▸ Co-generation (Cogeneration): Using waste heat for industrial processes, space heating, or
agriculture (e.g., aquaculture using warm water) — improves efficiency and reduces thermal
discharge.

▸ Artificial Lake Cooling: Water cooled in large artificial lakes before re-use or discharge.

▸ Riparian Vegetation: Replanting trees along river banks to shade water and reduce solar
heating.

▸ Thermal Standards: CPCB (India) stipulates that discharge water temperature should not
exceed 40°C and should not raise receiving water temperature by more than 5°C.

▸ Switch to Renewable Energy: Reducing dependence on thermal power plants by adopting

solar and wind energy.
 Conclusion: Thus, thermal pollution, though invisible and odourless, causes significant
ecological damage to aquatic ecosystems. Hence, mandating efficient cooling systems,
enforcing temperature standards, and transitioning to renewable energy sources are essential
steps for preventing thermal pollution.

Nuclear Hazards (Radioactive Pollution) 10 marks

8

DEFINITION

Nuclear Hazard (Radioactive Pollution) is the contamination of the environment by

radioactive substances — emitting alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) radiation — arising from
nuclear power plants, nuclear weapons testing, and radioactive waste, causing severe biological
damage to living organisms.

INTRODUCTION

Radioactive materials emit ionizing radiation that can penetrate cells, damage DNA, and cause
mutation, cancer, and death. Unlike most pollutants, radioactive isotopes have extremely long half-
lives — e.g., Uranium-235 (700 million years), Strontium-90 (29 years), Caesium-137 (30 years) —
meaning contamination persists for centuries or millennia. The Hiroshima (1945) and Chernobyl
(1986) disasters demonstrated the devastating potential of nuclear radiation.

⚠ CAUSES OF NUCLEAR HAZARDS

▸ Nuclear Power Plant Accidents: Meltdowns release massive amounts of radioactive isotopes
into air, water, and soil. Examples: Chernobyl (1986), Fukushima (2011), Three Mile Island
(1979).

▸ Nuclear Weapons Testing: Above-ground nuclear tests (pre-1963) dispersed radioactive

fallout globally. Over 2,000 nuclear tests conducted worldwide.

▸ Mining of Radioactive Ores: Uranium and thorium mining releases radioactive dust and
radon gas, contaminating air, water, and soil.

▸ Improper Disposal of Radioactive Waste: Low-level (hospital and research isotopes) and
high-level (spent nuclear fuel) waste, if improperly stored, can leak into the environment.

▸ Use of Radioactive Materials in Medicine and Industry: X-ray machines, radiotherapy, and
industrial gauges — radiation exposure if equipment malfunctions or is mishandled.

▸ Nuclear Submarines and Ships: Risk of accidents, coolant leaks, and reactor waste in the
ocean.

▸ Cosmic Radiation: Natural background radiation from cosmic rays — increased at high
altitudes and in people working on aircraft.

EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR HAZARDS

A. On Human Health (Somatic and Genetic Effects):

▸ Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS): High-dose radiation exposure causes nausea, hair loss,
skin burns, internal haemorrhage, and death within days to weeks.

▸ Cancer: Long-term radiation exposure increases risk of leukaemia, thyroid cancer, lung cancer,
and bone cancer. Strontium-90 deposits in bones like calcium.

▸ Genetic Mutations: Radiation damages DNA — causes heritable mutations affecting future
 generations (teratogenic and mutagenic effects).

▸ Birth Defects: Radiation exposure during pregnancy causes foetal deformities, stillbirths, and
intellectual disabilities.

▸ Leukaemia: Ionizing radiation destroys bone marrow — causes leukaemia (blood cancer).

▸ Eye Damage: Radiation causes cataracts and retinal damage.

B. On the Environment:

▸ Soil and water contamination for hundreds of years — the Chernobyl exclusion zone (30 km
radius) remains uninhabitable.

▸ Radioactive bioaccumulation in food chains — contaminated grass → cattle → human milk and
meat.

▸ Destruction of forests and wildlife — Red Forest near Chernobyl (trees killed by radiation
within days).

✅ CONTROL MEASURES FOR NUCLEAR HAZARDS

▸ Safe Design of Nuclear Reactors: Multiple redundant safety systems, containment structures,
automatic shutdown mechanisms (SCRAM). Modern Generation IV reactors are inherently safe.

▸ Radioactive Waste Management:

– Low-Level Waste: Sealed in containers and buried in shallow repositories.

– High-Level Waste: Vitrification (encased in glass) → stored in deep geological repositories (500–

1000 m underground).

▸ Nuclear Non-Proliferation: Treaties like NPT (Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, 1968) and
CTBT (Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, 1996) limit nuclear weapon testing.

▸ Radiation Monitoring: Geiger-Müller counters monitor radiation levels around nuclear

facilities; regular environmental sampling of air, water, and soil.

▸ Emergency Preparedness: Evacuation plans, iodine tablet distribution (prevents thyroid

cancer), and shelter-in-place protocols near nuclear plants.

▸ Training and Safety Culture: Rigorous operator training, regular safety drills, and
international peer reviews (WANO — World Association of Nuclear Operators).

▸ International Oversight: IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) regulates nuclear safety
globally and conducts inspections.

▸ Radiation Protection Standards: ALARA principle — "As Low As Reasonably Achievable"

— minimising radiation dose to workers and the public.

C ASE ST UDY 1: CHER NOBYL NUCLEA R DISA STER (1986 )

On April 26, 1986, reactor No. 4 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (Ukraine, USSR)
exploded during a safety test — releasing 400 times more radiation than the Hiroshima
bomb . The radioactive cloud spread across Europe. Over 350,000 people were evacuated; 31
died immediately; thousands developed thyroid cancer (especially children). A 30-km
exclusion zone remains uninhabitable to this day. The disaster led to the establishment of the
UN Chernobyl Programme and global nuclear safety reforms.

C ASE ST UDY 2: FUKU SHIMA DAIICH I DISA STER (2011 )

On March 11, 2011, a 9.0-magnitude earthquake and tsunami struck Japan, causing three
reactors at Fukushima Daiichi to melt down — releasing radioactive isotopes (Cs-137, I-131)
into the air and Pacific Ocean. Over 154,000 people were evacuated ; large areas of
farmland and ocean were contaminated. The disaster led Japan to shut down all its nuclear
reactors temporarily and promoted a global reassessment of nuclear energy policy.

Conclusion: Thus, nuclear hazards represent the most severe and long-lasting form of
environmental pollution, capable of rendering entire regions uninhabitable for centuries. It
can be concluded that while nuclear energy holds promise as a low-carbon power source, its
use demands the highest standards of design, operation, waste management, and international
oversight to prevent catastrophic accidents.
 9 Solid Waste Management
10 marks

DEFINITION

Solid Waste refers to any unwanted or discarded solid material generated from domestic,
commercial, institutional, industrial, or agricultural activities that is no longer useful to the
generator. Solid Waste Management (SWM) is the systematic control of the generation, storage,
collection, transportation, processing, and disposal of solid waste.

INTRODUCTION

India generates over 150,000 tonnes of solid waste per day — a figure growing at 5% per year
with urbanisation. Improper waste management causes land, air, and water pollution, public health
crises, and climate change (methane from landfills). The Swachh Bharat Mission (2014) and
Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 address this challenge at the national level.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTE

Basis Type Examples

Degradability Biodegradable Food waste, garden waste, paper, cotton

Degradability Non-biodegradable Plastics, metals, glass, synthetic fabrics, e-waste

Source Urban/Municipal Household garbage, street sweepings, market waste

Source Industrial Fly ash, metal scraps, chemical sludge, packaging

Source Biomedical Used syringes, bandages, body parts, expired medicines

Source Hazardous Toxic chemicals, heavy metal sludge, asbestos

Source E-waste Old computers, mobile phones, batteries

BIODEGRADABLE VS NON-BIODEGRADABLE WASTE

Aspect Biodegradable Waste Non-biodegradable Waste

Definition Can be broken down by Cannot be decomposed naturally

microorganisms

Decomposition Days to months Hundreds to thousands of years

Time

Environmental Low (if managed); causes CH4 if in High — persists in environment;

Risk landfill toxic

Examples Vegetable peels, paper, manure Plastics, glass, synthetic rubber,

DDT

Management Composting, biogas, vermicomposting Recycling, incineration, secured

landfill

A. Urban (Municipal) Solid Waste

⚠ CAUSES / SOURCES OF URBAN WASTE

▸ Households: Food waste, packaging materials, paper, glass, plastics — the largest component
of MSW.

▸ Commercial Establishments: Markets, hotels, restaurants, offices — generate large volumes

of organic and packaging waste.

▸ Construction and Demolition: Concrete rubble, bricks, metals, wood — constitute a major
and growing waste stream.

▸ Hospitals and Healthcare: Biomedical waste — needles, blood-soaked bandages, expired

drugs, pathological waste.

▸ Street Sweepings: Dust, leaves, plastic litter collected from roads and public spaces.

EFFECTS OF URBAN SOLID WASTE

▸ Land Pollution: Open dumping creates unsightly and unhygienic waste heaps that contaminate
soil.

▸ Water Pollution: Leachate (toxic liquid from decomposing waste) percolates into groundwater
and contaminates surface water.

▸ Air Pollution: Open burning of waste releases CO, dioxins, furans, and particulate matter.
Landfills emit methane (a potent greenhouse gas).

▸ Disease Spread: Waste heaps breed mosquitoes (malaria, dengue), flies (cholera, typhoid), and
rats (plague, leptospirosis).

▸ Aesthetic Degradation: Littered streets and open dumps lower the quality of urban life and
reduce tourism.

▸ Climate Change: Methane from landfills contributes significantly to global warming (CH4 is
25x more potent than CO2).

B. Industrial Solid Waste

⚠ CAUSES / SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE

▸ Manufacturing Industries: Metal scraps, rejected products, chemical residues, and packaging
waste.

▸ Thermal Power Plants: Fly ash and bottom ash from coal combustion — India generates over
200 million tonnes of fly ash annually.

▸ Mining and Quarrying: Overburden (waste rock), tailings (mine waste), and slag.

▸ Chemical Industries: Toxic sludge, spent solvents, off-specification chemical products, and
catalysts.

▸ Paper and Pulp Industry: Chemical sludge and wood waste.

▸ E-Waste: Discarded electronics containing lead, mercury, cadmium, and brominated flame
retardants — the fastest-growing waste stream globally.

✅ CONTROL MEASURES — SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (3R + MORE)

The most important framework for solid waste management is the 3R Principle: Reduce → Reuse
→ Recycle, extended to 5R: Refuse → Reduce → Reuse → Recycle → Recover.

▸ Source Segregation: Separating waste at the point of generation into wet (organic), dry
(recyclable), and hazardous waste — mandatory under SWM Rules, 2016.

▸ Composting: Aerobic decomposition of organic waste into nutrient-rich compost for

agriculture. Simple, low-cost, and effective.

▸ Vermicomposting: Using earthworms (Eisenia fetida) to decompose organic waste into

vermicompost — faster and richer in nutrients than regular composting.
 ▸ Biogas (Anaerobic Digestion): Organic waste decomposed by anaerobic bacteria → produces
methane (cooking fuel) + digestate (fertiliser).

▸ Recycling: Processing materials (paper, glass, metals, plastics) back into raw materials to
manufacture new products.

▸ Incineration: High-temperature combustion of waste — reduces volume by 90%; modern

incinerators generate electricity (Waste-to-Energy). Must control dioxin and furan emissions.

▸ Sanitary Landfill: Engineered disposal site with impermeable liner (clay + geomembrane),
leachate collection system, and gas extraction. Final disposal method for residual waste.

▸ Hazardous Waste Treatment: Chemical neutralisation, stabilisation, and secured landfill for
industrial toxic waste.

▸ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Manufacturers are legally responsible for the end-
of-life management of their products (packaging, electronics).

▸ Legislation: Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016; Hazardous and Other Wastes Rules, 2016;
E-Waste Management Rules, 2022 — India.

♻ FL OWCHAR T: SOLID W ASTE MANAG EMENT PROCES S

Waste Generation → Collection & Segregation (Wet/Dry/Hazardous) → Transportation

↓
Organic Waste → Composting / Biogas | Recyclables → Recycling Plant |
Residue → Sanitary Landfill

Conclusion: Thus, solid waste management is a critical component of sustainable urban and
industrial development. It can be concluded that implementing the 3R principle at source,
combined with scientific treatment technologies and effective legislation, can transform waste
from an environmental burden into a valuable resource.

10 Fireworks — Impacts and Hazards

8 marks

DEFINITION

Fireworks are pyrotechnic devices containing explosive chemical mixtures (oxidisers, fuels,
and metal salts for colour) that, when ignited, produce light, sound, smoke, and heat. Their use
during festivals and celebrations contributes significantly to air, noise, soil, and water pollution.

INTRODUCTION

Fireworks contain chemicals such as potassium nitrate (KNO3), sulphur, charcoal,

aluminium, barium salts (green), strontium salts (red), copper salts (blue), and lead
compounds. In India, Diwali is the primary fireworks event, causing dramatic spikes in air
pollution, particularly in North Indian cities like Delhi, where post-Diwali AQI often crosses 400–
500 (Hazardous level).

⚠ CAUSES OF POLLUTION DUE TO FIREWORKS

▸ Combustion of Chemical Mixtures: Burning of metals (aluminium, magnesium), sulphur, and

 carbon releases PM2.5, PM10, CO, SO2, NOx, and metal oxides.

▸ Release of Heavy Metals: Barium, lead, antimony, strontium, and copper compounds released
as fine particulate aerosols that remain suspended in the air for hours.

▸ Explosive Noise: Crackers (especially atom bombs, hydrogen bombs) generate sounds of 120–
150 dB — far exceeding the safe limit of 85 dB.

▸ Solid Waste Generation: Paper casings, plastic components, and unburned chemicals
accumulate as waste on streets, rooftops, and water bodies.

▸ Fire Hazards: Accidental fires during storage, transport, and use of fireworks cause property
damage and loss of life (e.g., Paravoor firecracker factory explosion, Kerala, 2016).

EFFECTS OF FIREWORKS

A. Effects on Air Quality:

▸ Massive spike in PM2.5 and PM10 — post-Diwali Delhi air quality deteriorates to 5–10x WHO
safe limits.

▸ Increased SO2 and NOx concentrations — promotes formation of secondary pollutants and
smog.

▸ Release of ozone-depleting compounds and persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

▸ Heavy metal aerosols (Ba, Pb, Al, Cu) remain in the atmosphere and deposit on soil and water.

B. Effects on Human Health:

▸ Respiratory Problems: Acute aggravation of asthma, bronchitis, and COPD — particularly in

children and elderly.

▸ Eye Injuries: Chemical burns and explosive injuries to eyes from close-range bursting of
crackers.

▸ Burns and Physical Injuries: Thousands of burn cases and blast injuries reported annually
during Diwali.

▸ Noise-Induced Hearing Loss: Exposure to firework blasts exceeding 140 dB can cause
permanent hearing damage, especially in children.

▸ Heavy Metal Toxicity: Inhalation of barium and lead particulates causes neurological damage
and kidney failure.

▸ Headache and Nausea: Due to CO and sulphur compound inhalation.

C. Effects on Animals:

▸ Panic and Stress: Loud bursts cause extreme stress in dogs, cats, birds, and livestock — panic,
erratic behaviour, and even cardiac arrest in small animals.

▸ Disorientation of Migratory Birds: Fireworks disrupt bird migration — lights and noise cause
birds to lose direction, injure themselves against buildings.

▸ Aquatic Life: Chemical residues washing into water bodies kill fish and aquatic invertebrates.

▸ Wildlife in Forests: Fireworks near forests cause stampedes, separation of young from
parents, and abandonment of nests.

✅ PREVENTIVE MEASURES FOR FIREWORKS HAZARDS

▸ Use of Green Crackers: Supreme Court of India (2018) mandated use of CSIR-certified
green crackers — 30% less particulate emission than conventional fireworks, no barium
compounds.

▸ Time Restrictions: Supreme Court permits fireworks only between 8 PM and 10 PM on

festival nights in India.
 ▸ Total Ban in Critically Polluted Areas: Cities with AQI above 200 ("Poor" or worse) should
prohibit all fireworks.

▸ Community Firework Displays: Centralised, professionally managed displays instead of

individual bursting — reduces overall quantity and accidental injuries.

▸ Public Awareness Campaigns: Promoting noise-free, eco-friendly celebrations using diyas

(clay lamps), LED lights, and digital fireworks apps.

▸ Ban on Hazardous Chemicals: Prohibiting barium, arsenic, and lead compounds in fireworks
manufacturing.

▸ Protecting Animals: Keeping pets indoors with doors and windows closed; providing
soundproofed spaces for animals in shelters.

▸ Legislation: Explosives Act, 1884; Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organisation (PESO)
regulates manufacture, storage, and sale of fireworks in India.

★ Supreme Court Order (2018): Conventional crackers banned in NCR Delhi; only CSIR-certified
Green Crackers permitted. Timings restricted to 8–10 PM. Violation punishable under criminal law.

Conclusion: Thus, while fireworks are a part of cultural heritage and celebration, their
unrestricted use causes severe pollution of air, water, and soil, and poses grave risks to
human and animal health. It can be concluded that transitioning to eco-friendly, noise-free,
and chemical-safe alternatives through legislation, public awareness, and technological
innovation is the responsible path forward.

Pollution Case Studies 8 marks

11

INTRODUCTION

Case studies are real-world examples that illustrate the causes, effects, and lessons of
environmental pollution. They are highly important in examinations as they demonstrate practical
knowledge and application of concepts studied in theory.

C ASE ST UDY 1: DELH I AIR POLLUT ION — THE SMOG C RISIS

Location: Delhi, National Capital Territory, India

Background: Delhi is consistently ranked among the world's most air-polluted cities. Every
winter (October–January), a severe smog crisis grips the city, with AQI (Air Quality Index)
frequently crossing 400–500 (Hazardous) — 20 times WHO safe limits.
Causes:

– Stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana (contributes 40–50% of Delhi's winter pollution)

– Vehicular emissions from 11 million+ vehicles

– Industrial emissions from nearby industrial areas

– Construction dust and road dust

– Geographic and meteorological factors — low wind speed, temperature inversion trap pollutants

Effects: Closure of schools, restriction on construction, reduced visibility (smog), rise in

hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiac conditions. Delhi has some of the highest rates
of childhood asthma in the world.
Control Measures Taken: Odd-Even vehicle scheme, ban on diesel generators, GRAP
(Graded Response Action Plan), installation of smog towers, promotion of CNG buses, Ban on
crop burning — Parali management scheme.
Lesson: Air pollution is a multi-source, multi-stakeholder problem requiring integrated action
across agriculture, transport, industry, and urban planning.

C ASE ST UDY 2: GANG A RIVE R POLL UTION

Location: River Ganga, India (2,525 km — from Gangotri to Bay of Bengal)

Background: The Ganga is India's most sacred river and supports the livelihoods of over
500 million people . However, it is classified as one of the most polluted rivers in the world
due to decades of unregulated industrial and domestic waste discharge.
Causes:

– Over 1,000 large industries (tanneries in Kanpur, sugar mills, paper mills) discharge toxic
effluents directly

– Untreated sewage from 29 cities along its banks (only 36% of sewage is treated)

– Religious activities — idol immersion, cremation ash, and floral offerings

– Faecal contamination — open defecation along the river banks

Effects: BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) in the Ganga is 30–40 mg/L against safe limit
of 3 mg/L. Fish population has declined by over 60%. High coliform bacteria — water unfit for
drinking or bathing. Rare Gangetic dolphin and gharial face extinction.
Control Measures: Namami Gange Programme (2014) — Rs. 20,000 crore allocated;
construction of 157 STPs; industrial effluent monitoring; declaration of Ganga as India's
National River.
Lesson: River pollution is caused by a combination of industrial, domestic, and cultural
factors and requires sustained, multi-decadal investment and political will to remediate.

C ASE ST UDY 3: MINA MATA D ISEASE — MER CURY POISO NING (JAPAN)

Location: Minamata Bay, Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan (1956 onwards)

Background: The Chisso Chemical Corporation discharged mercury-laden wastewater
into Minamata Bay from 1932–1968. Methylmercury — a highly toxic organic form of
mercury — bioaccumulated in fish and shellfish, the dietary staple of local communities.
Effects:

– Over 2,265 deaths officially recognised; thousands more affected

– Symptoms: tremors, vision loss, deafness, paralysis, intellectual disability, congenital defects in
children born to exposed mothers

– Cats and birds near the bay displayed bizarre behaviour ("dancing cat disease") before human
cases emerged

Significance: Minamata disease is the world's most infamous case of industrial water
pollution and biomagnification. It led to Japan's landmark Basic Law for Environmental
Pollution Control (1967) and globally inspired the development of environmental health
legislation. The Minamata Convention on Mercury (2017) — an international treaty on
mercury control — is named after this tragedy.
Lesson: Industrial discharge of heavy metals into water bodies causes long-term, irreversible,
and multigenerational ecological and human health catastrophe.

Conclusion: Thus, these case studies powerfully demonstrate that environmental pollution —
whether of air, water, or soil — carries severe, often irreversible consequences for human
health, biodiversity, and economies. It can be concluded that every pollution crisis contains an
important lesson: prevention is always more effective, humane, and economical than
remediation.
 Quick Revision: All Pollution Types at a Glance
✦

Pollution Key Control

Key Pollutants Major Causes Key Effects
Type Measure

Air SO2, NOx, Industries, Lung disease, acid ESP, scrubbers,

PM2.5, CO, CO2 vehicles, burning rain, global warming CNG, legislation

Water Sewage, heavy Industries, Waterborne diseases, STP, ETP,

metals, pesticides agriculture, eutrophication Namami Gange
domestic

Soil Pesticides, heavy Agriculture, Infertility, Bioremediation,

metals, plastics mining, waste groundwater organic farming
dumping contamination

Marine Oil, plastics, Oil spills, shipping, Coral bleaching, dead MARPOL, MPAs,
heavy metals, industrial zones, plastic boom/skimmer
nutrients discharge ingestion

Noise Decibels (dB) Traffic, industry, Hearing loss, stress, Sound barriers,
above 85 loudspeakers, hypertension mufflers, green
fireworks belts

Thermal Hot water Power plants, DO reduction, fish Cooling towers,

discharge industries kills, coral bleaching cogeneration

Nuclear α, β, γ radiation, Nuclear accidents, Cancer, genetic Vitrification,

radioactive testing, waste mutation, ARS IAEA oversight,
isotopes ALARA

Solid Organics, Urbanisation, Leachate, methane, 3R, composting,

Waste plastics, e-waste, industry, disease vectors sanitary landfill
chemicals consumption

Fireworks PM2.5, heavy Festival Respiratory disease, Green crackers,

metals, noise celebrations, hearing loss, animal time restrictions,
pyrotechnics stress ban

B .Sc. E NVIRON MENTAL STUDIES · UNIT II · COMPLETE EXAM NOTES

Env ironmen tal Po llution · So lid Waste · Fireworks · Case Studie s

"We do not inherit the Earth from our ancestors — we borrow it from our children."