Loyola Institute of Technology & Science

Department of Science and Humanities

LECTURE NOTES

Regulations : 2025
Semester : 02
Year :I
Subject Code : EE25C01
Subject Name : Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Prepared by Verified by
[Link] Remena D HOD
Assistant Professor/ ECE

Approved by
Principal

1
 SYLLABUS

EE25C01 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LTPC 3003

DC Fundamentals: Current and Voltage sources, Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance; Ohm‘s law,
Kirchhoff‘s law, Series parallel combination of R, L and C components, Voltage Divider and Current
Divider Rules.
Activities: Virtual Demonstration of electrical laws & circuits, Hands-on Bread boarding, Solving GATE
questions.
AC Fundamentals: Faraday‘s Laws of Electro-magnetic Induction, Definition of Self and Mutual
Inductances, Generation of sinusoidal voltage, Instantaneous & RMS values of sinusoidal signals,
Introduction to 3-phase systems, Electrical Safety, Fuses and Earthing.
Activities: Virtual Demonstration of electromagnetic induction, Measurement of instantaneous and RMS
values of AC signals, Solving GATE questions.
Electric Machines: DC Machines, Transformers, Star and delta Connections, Three phase Induction
motors, Synchronous Generators, Single Phase Induction Motors, Stepper Motor, Universal Motor and
BLDC motor.
Activities: Virtual demonstration of step-up and step-down transformers, Virtual working models of
Universal and BLDC motors, Solving GATE questions.
Semiconductor Devices: PN junction diodes, Zener Diode, Voltage regulator, BJT & FET Transistors,
Timers, Operational Amplifiers.
Activities: Virtual demonstration of V-I characteristics of PN junction and Zener diodes using simulation,
inverting/non-inverting amplifiers, Solving GATE questions.
Digital Electronics: Boolean algebra, Basic and Universal Gates, adders, multiplexers, demultiplexers
and flip-flops.
Activity: Online logic gate simulators, Solving GATE questions.
Microcontrollers: Introduction, Architecture, Potential Applications.
Activities: Physical demonstration of a microcontroller and online simulation of microcontroller.
E-resources:
1. [Link]
2. Circuit Simulator – [Link]

2
COURSE OUTCOMES:

COs COURSE OUTCOME C LEVEL

1. Explain the fundamental concepts of DC and AC circuits. K2
2. Explain the construction, working principles, and applications of electrical
K2
machines
3. Illustrate the characteristics and applications of semiconductor devices. K2
4. Apply Boolean algebra and digital logic principles to design combinational and
K3
sequential circuits using logic gates.
5. Explain the architecture, features, and applications of microcontrollers. K2

CO - PO /PSO MAPPING:
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

CO 1 3 3 1 1 2 - - - - - - 1 1 1 1
CO 2 3 2 1 1 2 - - - - - - 1 2 1 1
CO 3 3 2 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 1 1 1
CO 4 3 2 2 - 2 - - - - - - 1 1 1 2
CO 5 3 2 2 - - - - - - - - 1 2 1 2
3 2 1.4 1 2 1 1.4 1 1.4

3
 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

Course Code-Name : EE25C01 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Degree-Branch : B.E-Computer Science and Engineering

Year/Semester : I/II

[Link] ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS COs Marks Sign

UNIT-I
1 Instantaneous & RMS values of sinusoidal signals. CO1
UNIT-II
2 Universal Motor and BLDC motor. CO2
UNIT-III
3 Operational Amplifiers. CO3
UNIT-IV
4 Flipflops CO4
UNIT-V
5 Physical demonstration of a microcontroller CO5

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 UNIT :I ( CHAPTER 1&2)

CHAPTER 1: DC Fundamentals: Current and Voltage sources, Resistance, Inductance and

Capacitance; Ohm‘s law, Kirchhoff‘s law, Series parallel combination of R, L and C components, Voltage
Divider and Current Divider Rules.
Activities: Virtual Demonstration of electrical laws & circuits, Hands-on Bread boarding, Solving GATE
questions.
CHAPTER 2: AC Fundamentals: Faraday‘s Laws of Electro-magnetic Induction, Definition of Self and
Mutual Inductances, Generation of sinusoidal voltage, Instantaneous & RMS values of sinusoidal signals,
Introduction to 3-phase systems, Electrical Safety, Fuses and Earthing.
Activities: Virtual Demonstration of electromagnetic induction, Measurement of instantaneous and RMS
values of AC signals, Solving GATE questions.

CHAPTER 1
DC Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction
Direct Current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge through a conductor, meaning the
current always flows in the same direction. DC is produced by sources such as batteries, solar cells, and
DC generators.
In a DC circuit, the main quantities are voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R), which are
related by Ohm‘s Law (V = IR). DC circuits are easy to analyze because the values remain constant
over time, unlike AC circuits where signals vary.
Components such as resistors, switches, and lamps operate in simple DC circuits, and the current
division and voltage division rules help determine the distribution of current and voltage. DC
fundamentals form the base for understanding electrical networks, electronic devices, and power supply
systems used in many applications like vehicles, portable devices, and control systems.
1.2 Current and Voltage sources
1.2.1 Voltage sources
 In DC circuit theory, voltage is the potential energy of an electrical supply stored in the form of
an electrical charge. Batteries and regulated DC power supplies act as practical voltage sources.
 The difference in voltage between any two points, connections or junctions (called nodes) in a
circuit is known as the Potential Difference (v) commonly called the Voltage Drop. The
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 Potential difference between two points is measured in Volts with the circuit symbol V.
 A voltage source that is unchanging and constant over time is called a DC Voltage. While a
voltage source that varies periodically in amplitude over time is called an AC voltage.
 The voltage and frequency of mains alternating current (AC) electricity used in homes is
typically 230 volts AC (230V) in the United kingdom and 110 volts AC (110V) in the USA.
 General electronic circuits operate on low voltage DC battery supplies of between 1.5V and
24V dc.
 The circuit symbol for a constant voltage source usually given as a battery symbol with a
positive (+) and negative (–) sign indicating the direction of the polarity. The circuit symbol for
an alternating voltage source is a circle with a sine wave inside.

Fig: voltage symbols

1.2.2 Current Sources
 In DC circuit theory, electrical Current, ( I ) is the movement or flow of electrical charge and is
measured in Amperes. It is the continuous and uniform flow (called a drift) of electrons (the
negative particles of an atom) around a circuit.

Fig: Current Symbol

Conventional Current Flow

 Conventionally this is the flow of positive charge around a circuit, being positive to negative.
This flow of current from positive to negative is generally known as conventional current flow.
 The components such as diodes and transistors point in the direction of conventional current
flow. Then Conventional Current Flow gives the flow of electrical current from positive to

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 negative and which is the opposite in direction to the actual flow of electrons.

Fig: Conventional current flow

Electron Flow
 The flow of electrons around the circuit is opposite to the direction of the conventional current
flow being negative to positive. The electrons actually flow around a circuit from the negative
terminal to the positive is generally known as Electron flow.

Fig: Electron flow

1.3 Resistance
Resistance (R) is an electrical property of a material that opposes the flow of electric current. It
determines how much current flows through a circuit for a given voltage. The unit of resistance
is the ohm (Ω).

Fig: Resistor symbols

 According to Ohm‘s Law, resistance is expressed as:
R=V/I
 Resistance of a Conductor,

ρ = Resistivity (Ω·m)
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 L = Length (m)
A = Cross-sectional area (m²)
 Temperature Dependence
Rt = R0(1+ αΔT)
1.4 Inductance

 Inductance (L) is the property of a coil (inductor) that opposes any change in current flowing
through it. It stores energy in the form of a magnetic field when current passes through the coil.
The unit of inductance is the henry (H).
 The inductance depends on the number of turns, coil area, length, and core material (air, iron,
ferrite). When current changes, the inductor produces a voltage that opposes the change
according to Faraday’s Law.
 Inductors are used in filters, transformers, power supplies, motors, and communication circuits.

Fig: Inductor symbols

 Self–Induced EMF (Voltage across Inductor)

VL=L

 Inductance of a Coil

L=

Where,
N = number of turns
Φ = magnetic flux
I = current
 Energy Stored in an Inductor

W = LI2

1.5 Capacitance

 Capacitance is the property of a device to store electric charge and energy in an electric field.
The device that stores charge is called a capacitor.
 A capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates separated by an insulating material called
dielectric (air, paper, mica, ceramic, etc.).
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 When a voltage is applied, one plate gets positive charge, and the other gets negative charge.
The ability of the capacitor to store this charge is its capacitance.
 Symbol: C
 Unit: Farad (F)
 Capacitors oppose change in voltage (just like inductors oppose change in current).In DC
circuits, a capacitor initially allows current (charging), but once fully charged, it behaves like an
open circuit.
 In AC circuits, capacitors continuously charge and discharge.

Fig: Capacitor Symbols

 Basic Capacitance Formula

C =

Where:
C = capacitance
Q = charge
V = voltage
 Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor

C=ε0 εr

Where:
A = area of plates
d = distance between plates
ε0 = permittivity of free space
εr = dielectric constant
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 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
W = CV2

1.6 Ohm’s law

 Ohm‘s Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
voltage across it, provided the temperature remains constant.
V=IR
Where:
V = Voltage (Volts)
I = Current (Amps)
R = Resistance (Ohms)
Other useful forms:
I=V/R
R=V/I
Limitations:
 It is not applicable to metallic conductors
 It is not applicable nonlinear devices like Zener diode, vacuum tubes etc.
 It is not applicable if the temperature changes
1.7 Kirchhoff’s law
 Kirchhoff‘s Laws are fundamental rules used to analyze electrical circuits, especially when
circuits have multiple loops and nodes.
 They consist of two laws:
a) Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
b) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
a) Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) :
 The algebraic sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving
the node.
 Total incoming current = Total outgoing current
∑Iin = ∑Iout

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 Fig: Kirchhoff’s Current Law
b) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
 The algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed loop is zero.
 Kirchhoff‘s voltage law is states that sum of potential rises is equal to the sum of
potential drops.

Sum of voltage rises = Sum of voltage drops

∑V=0

Fig: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

1.8 Series parallel combination of R, L and C components
1.8.1 Series parallel combination of Resistance (R)
o In electrical circuits, resistors are combined in series, parallel, or a combination of both to
achieve a desired total resistance or equivalent resistance,(Req). .

Fig: Series parallel combination of Resistance

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Series Combination
o When resistors are connected end-to-end, the same current flows through all of them. The
total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances.
o Current: Same through all resistors
Itotal=I1=I2=I3=…….
o Voltage: The total voltage is the sum of the voltage drops across each resistor

Vtotal=V1+V2+V3+.......
o Formula: The equivalent resistance (RS) for n series is calculated as

RS=R1+R2+R3+......+Rn
The total resistance is always greater than the largest individual resistance.
Parallel Combination
o When resistors are connected across each other such that the current splits into different
branches, the voltage across each resistor is the same.
o Voltage: Same across all resistors

Vtotal=V1=V2=V3=.......

o Current: The total current is the sum of the currents through each branch

Itotal=I1+I2+I3+…….

o Formula: The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑝 for 𝑛 resistors in parallel is the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual resistances:

+ + + ……+

o The total resistance is always less than the smallest individual resistance.
o For two resistors in parallel, a shortcut formula can be used:

𝑅𝑝 =

1.8.2 Series parallel combination of Inductance (L)

o Inductors can be connected in series or parallel to obtain an equivalent inductance
depending on circuit requirements.

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 Fig: Series parallel combination of Inductance

Inductors in Series
o Equivalent inductance is the sum of all inductances.
Leq=L1+L2+L3+......+Ln
o In a series circuit, the same current flows through each inductor, and the total opposition to
change of current adds up. Therefore, the inductances directly add.
Inductors in Parallel
o Equivalent inductance is found using reciprocal addition (just like resistors in parallel).

+ + + ……+

o For two inductors,

L𝑝 =

o In parallel, the voltage across each inductor is the same, and the current divides. So, the
effective inductance decreases.
1.8.3 Series parallel combination of Capacitance (C)

o Capacitors are combined in series or parallel to achieve a desired equivalent capacitance

value for a circuit.

Fig: Series parallel combination of Capacitance

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 Capacitors in Parallel

o When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance is the sum of the individual
capacitances because the effective plate area increases.

o Voltage: The potential difference (𝑉) across each capacitor is the same.

o Charge: The total charge (𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) is the sum of the charges on each capacitor:

𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙=𝑄1+𝑄2+𝑄3

o Equivalent Capacitance (𝐶𝑝):

𝐶𝑝=𝐶1+𝐶2+𝐶3+…

o This configuration results in a total capacitance greater than any single capacitor in the
combination.
Capacitors in Series

o When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than any one of the
individual capacitances because the effective plate spacing increases.
o Voltage: The total potential difference (𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) across the combination is the sum of the
voltages across each capacitor:
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙=𝑉1+𝑉2+𝑉3
o Charge: The magnitude of the charge (𝑄) is the same on each capacitor.
o Equivalent Capacitance (𝐶𝑠):

+ + + ……+

o For a circuit with only two capacitors in series, this formula can be simplified to

Cs =

1.9 Voltage Divider and Current Divider Rules:

o In electrical engineering, series and parallel circuits are fundamental configurations. To
analyze these circuits quickly, two important rules are used:
1. Voltage Divider Rule (VDR) – used in series circuits.
2. Current Divider Rule (CDR) – used in parallel circuits.
o These rules simplify the calculation of voltage and current distribution in circuits without
applying full Ohm‘s law repeatedly.
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1. Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)
o Voltage Divider Rule states that in a series circuit, the total supplied voltage is divided
among the resistors directly proportional to their resistance values.
o In a series circuit:
 The same current flows through all resistors.
 Each resistor drops a voltage according to Ohm‘s law:
V=IR
 Higher resistance → higher voltage drop
 Lower resistance → lower voltage drop
Thus, voltage divides according to resistance.
Voltage Divider Formula
o For resistors R1,R2 ,..., Rn in series across supply voltage V:

Vi =

Where Vi is the voltage across resistor Ri.

Derivation of VDR

o Total resistance in series:

RT=R1+R2+R3

o Current flowing:

I=

o Voltage across any resistor:

Vi = I × Ri

Substitute I

Vi = x Ri

Vi = V x

2. Current Divider Rule (CDR)

o Current Divider Rule states that in a parallel circuit, the total current divides among branches in
inverse proportion to their resistances.

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o In a parallel circuit:
 Voltage across each branch is the same.
 Current flow depends on resistance:
 Low resistance → more current
 High resistance → less current
 The sum of branch currents equals total current.
o Current Divider Formula (for two resistors)
For two resistors R1 and R2 in parallel with total current I:

I1 =

I2 =

Current through a resistor is proportional to the opposite resistance.

o General Formula (for n resistors)

Ii =

o Derivation of CDR

Total current:
I = I1+ I2
Since voltage is same across branches

I1 , I2

I1

I2

Differences Between VDR and CDR

Voltage Divider Rule Current Divider Rule

Used in series circuits Used in parallel circuits

Current is same for all resistors Voltage is same for all branches

Voltage divides directly with Current divides inversely with

resistance resistance

Used to find voltage drops Used to find branch currents

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Problems:
Example: 1
Two resistors 15 Ω and 30 Ω connected in series. Find the equivalent resistance.
Req = R1 + R2
= 15+ 30
= 45Ω

Example: 2
Two resistors 5 Ω and 5 Ω connected in parallel. Find the equivalent resistance.

Example: 3
Find the equivalent resistance between A & B

Example: 4
Two resistors connected in parallel across 200 V supply take 10 A from the mains. If the
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power dissipated in one resistor is 800 W. Find the value of the other resistor.

Total power taken P = V x I = 200 × 10 = 200 W

Power dissipated in one resistor P1 = 800 W
Power dissipated in the other resistor P2 = P − P1 = 2000 - 800 =1200 W

Example: 5
The effective resistance of two resistors connected in series is 100 Ω when connected in
parallel the effective value is 24 Ω. Determine the values of the two resistors.
Let the two resistors R1 and R2
When the resistors connected in series
R1 +R2 = 100
R2 = 100 - R1
When in parallel
R1R2 / R1+R2 = 24
R1R2 / 100 = 24
R1 (100 - R1) = 24 × 100
100R1 - R12 = 2400
R12- 100R1 +2400 = 0
(R1 -60) (R1 -40) = 0
R1 = 40 Ω (or) 60 Ω
If R1 = 40 Ω and R2 =60 Ω
R1 = 60 Ω and R2 = 40 Ω
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Example: 6
For the circuit shown in fig. calculate equivalent resistances of circuit and total circuit
current.

4 Ω, 5 Ω, 6 Ω are connected in series.

10 Ω and 15 Ω are connected in parallel.

Example: 7
Two 60 Ω resistors are connected in series. If a resistor R is connected across one of them, the
total circuit resistance becomes 80 Ω. Find the value of R.
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Example: 8
Find the current in 4 Ω resistor.

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Example: 9
Determine the effective resistance between terminals A and B in the circuit shown in
figure. If the current drawn at point A is 9 A, find the current and the voltage drop across
each element.

The current at point C splits into two parts one along the 12 Ω resistor (I1) and the other along
the 24 Ω resistor (I2). The current I1 and I2 can be found from current division rule.

From the point C, 6A current splits into 2 parts and the current through the 3 Ω resistor is 13.
I3 = 6×6 / 6+3 = 36/9 = 4A
So the current in 6 Ω resistor is
I4 = 6 - 4 = 2A
Voltage drop across 2 Ω resistor = 9 x 2 = 18 V
Voltage drop across 3 Ω resistor = 4 × 3 = 12 V
Voltage drop across 6 Ω resistor = 6 x 2 = 12 V
Voltage drop across 10 Ω resistor = 6 x 10 = 60 V
Voltage drop across 24 Ω resistor = 3 x 24 = 72 V

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 Example: 10
The inductances of 4H each are connected in series. What is the equivalant
inductance?
Equivalent inductance ⇒ L = L1 + L2 + L3
L = 4+4+4
= 12Ω
Example: 11
The inductances are connected as shown in fig. Find the equivalent inductance.

4H and 4H are connected in parallel

The net inductance across A-B is

LA-B = L1 + L2 + L3
=2+2+1
= 5H

Example: 12
Two capacitances of 2μF are connected in series. What is the equivalent capacitance?

Example: 13
Find the equivalent capacitance across A - B as shown in fig.

The equivalent capacitance of C2 and C3 is

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Ceq1 is parallel with the capacitance C1

KIRCHOFF'S LAWS
Example: 14
Find the current through 12 Ω resistor as shown in figure.

Incoming current at point A is

5 + 6 = 11 A
The current through 12 Ω resistor is 11 A.

Example: 15
Find the voltage across the resistor 'R' in figure.

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Applying KVL in the above circuit
20 - 8 + 10 - V1 – 17 + 5 = 0
10 – V1 = 0
10 = V1
Voltage across the resistor R = 10 V

Example: 16
For the circuit shown in figure, determine the unknown voltage drop V1,

Applying KVL in the above circuit

-2 -1 - V1 - 3 - 5 + 30 = 0
-V1 + 19 = 0
19 = V1
V1 = 19 V
Unknown voltage drop V1

Example: 17
Determine the current through resistance R3 in the circuit shown in figure.

According to Kirchoff's current law

IT = I1 + I2 + 13
50 = 30 + 10 + I3
I3 = 50 - 40
I3 = 10 mA

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Example: 18
Find the current I and the voltage across 30 Ω shown in the figure.

Voltage drop across each resistor as

V8 = 8I, V30 = 30I, V2 = 2I
Applying KVL
100 - 40 = 8I + 30I + 2I
60 = 40I
I = 60/40 = 1.5 A
Voltage across 30 Ω = V30 = 30 I = 30 x 1.5 = 45 V

Example: 19
For the resistive circuit shown in fig. Find (a) I1 (b) VS.

(a) Applying KCL at node 1,

I1 = 4 – 1 = 3A
(b) V1 = 3 × 1 = 3V
V12 = 1 × 1 = 1V
V2 = 3 -1= 2V
I2 = V2/1 = 2/1 = 2A
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KCL at node 2
I 3 = 1- I2 = 1- 2 = -1 A
VS = V2 - ( 1 × I3 ) = 2 - (1×-1)
=2+1=3V

Example: 20
Using KCL, find V2 for the given figure and given values i1 = 4A , V3 = 3V, V4 = 8V.

Applying KCL at the node

i1 – 3 i2 + i2 – i3 – i4 = 0
i1 – 2 i2 – i3 – i4 = 0
Substituting the values
4 - 2i2 - 1 – 2 = 0
1 – 2 i2 = 0
1 = 2 i2
i2 = 1/2 = 0.5 A
V2 = i2 × R = 0.5 x 2 = 1V

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 CHAPTER 2
AC Fundamentals
2.1 Introduction
The majority of electrical power in the world is generated, distributed, and consumed in the
form of 50- or 60-Hz sinusoidal alternating current (AC) and voltage. It is used for household and
industrial applications such as television sets, computers, microwave ovens, electric stoves, to the
large motors used in the industry.
AC has several advantages over DC. The major advantage of AC is the fact that it can be
transformed, however, direct current (DC) cannot. A transformer permits voltage to be stepped up
or down for the purpose of transmission.
Transmission of high voltage (in terms of kV) is that less current is required to produce the
same amount of power. Less current permits smaller wires to be used for transmission.

2.2 Faraday’s Laws of Electro-magnetic Induction

o Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon of generating an electromotive force (EMF) in a
conductor when the magnetic flux linking the conductor changes.
o This principle is the foundation of generators, transformers, induction motors, relays, etc.
o Michael Faraday discovered two fundamental laws in 1831 that explain how EMF is induced.
Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction

o “Whenever the magnetic flux linking a conductor changes, an electromotive force (EMF) is
induced in that conductor”.
o In simple terms, a changing magnetic field produces electricity.
o EMF can be induced by:
1. Moving the magnet towards or away from the coil
2. Moving the coil towards or away from the magnet
3. Changing the area of the coil
4. Rotating the coil in a magnetic field
5. Increasing or decreasing the magnetic field strength
o If the coil is part of a closed circuit, the induced EMF causes a current to flow, called induced
current.

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Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction

o “The magnitude of induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
linkage”.
o Mathematical Form

Where:

 e = induced EMF (volts)

 N= number of turns in the coil
 dϕ = magnetic flux (Webers)
 dt = rate of change of flux
 Negative sign = Lenz’s Law (direction of induced EMF opposes cause)

o Higher rate of flux change → higher EMF

o More turns in coil → greater EMF
o Constant flux produces no EMF
o Changing flux (increase or decrease) produces EMF

Lenz’s Law (Related Concept)

o “The direction of induced EMF is such that it opposes the change that causes it”.This law is
represented by the negative sign in Faraday‘s second law:

o If a magnet is pushed into a coil, the coil produces a magnetic field that opposes the magnet‘s
motion. This ensures conservation of energy.

Flux Linkage

o Flux linkage is the product of magnetic flux and number of turns.

o Thus Faraday‘s second law can also be written as:

28
 Derivation of Faraday’s Second Law

o Consider a coil with NNN turns in a varying magnetic field.

o Total flux linkage:

o Change in flux linkage over time:

o According to Faraday‘s law:

Therefore:

This shows that induced EMF is proportional to:

 NNumber of turns
 dϕ /dtRate of change of magnetic flux

Types of EMF Induction

1. Self-Induction
o EMF induced in the same coil due to changing current in it.
2. Mutual Induction
o EMF induced in one coil due to changing current in another coil. Basis of transformers.
Applications of Faraday’s Laws
1. Transformers
2. AC Generators
3. Induction motors
29
 4. Wireless charging systems
5. Electric guitar pickups
6. Inductive sensors
7. Magnetic speedometers
8. Relays and solenoids
9. Eddy current braking systems
10. Energy harvesting systems
Problems:
1. A coil of 100 turns links a magnetic flux that changes from 0.02 Wb to 0.05 Wb in 0.01
seconds.

Induced EMF = 300 V (negative sign shows direction).

2.3 DEFINITION OF SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCES

o Inductance is the property of an electrical circuit by which a change in current induces an
electromotive force (EMF).
o There are two types:
1. Self-Inductance
2. Mutual Inductance
o These concepts are fundamental in electromagnetics, transformer design, AC circuits, and
communication systems.
2.3.1 SELF INDUCTANCE
Definition
 Self-inductance is the property of a coil by which it opposes the change of current flowing
through it by inducing an EMF in the same coil.
Standard definition:
 Self-Inductance (L) is defined as the induced EMF produced in a coil per unit rate of change of
current in the same coil.
30
  When current in a coil changes, it creates a varying magnetic flux around the coil.
This changing flux links with the coil itself and induces a back EMF.
 If current increases, induced EMF acts opposite.
 If current decreases, induced EMF acts in the same direction.
 This nature obeys Lenz’s Law and ensures conservation of energy.
Mathematical Expression:
 Let current change by di in time dt.
 Then induced EMF:

Where
 L = self-inductance (Henry)
 Negative sign = opposition (Lenz‘s law)
Self-Inductance of a Long Solenoid
For a solenoid of the self-inductance is:

Where,
 N = number of turns
 A = cross-sectional area
 l = length
 μ = magnetic permeability
2.3.2 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
 Mutual Inductance is the property of two nearby coils in which a change of current in one coil
induces an EMF in the second coil.
Standard definition:
Mutual inductance (M) is the induced EMF in one coil per unit rate of change of current in
the other coil.
Mathematical Expression
If current in coil 1 changes:

31
 Where
 M = Mutual Inductance
 e2 = EMF induced in coil 2
Mutual Inductance Between Two Coils
Let:
 N1,N2 = turns of coil 1 and coil 2
 ϕ12 = flux in coil 2 created by I₁ in coil 1
 I1 = current in coil 1

Flux linkage:

Mutual Inductance:

Coefficient of Coupling (k)

Indicates how effectively two coils share magnetic flux.

Where
 k=1: perfect coupling
 k<1: practical coils
APPLICATIONS
Self Inductance
 Chokes
 Filters
 Energy storage devices
 Inductors in AC circuits
 Switching circuits (flyback EMF)

32
 Mutual Inductance
 Transformers
 Wireless charging systems
 Induction heating
 Telecommunication circuits
 Ignition coils
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SELF & MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

Self Inductance Mutual Inductance

EMF induced in the same

EMF induced in adjacent coil
coil

Depends on coil geometry Depends on both coils

Symbol: L Symbol: M

Occurs due to self-flux Occurs due to mutual flux

change change

Used in transformers, coupling

Used in chokes, inductors
circuits

2.4 Generation of Sinusoidal Voltage:

Alternating voltage is generated by rotating a coil in a stationary magnetic field. It also be
generated by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil. Rotating field method is used for
generation of alternating voltage.
Sinusoidal Alternating Quantity

 An alternating quantity which varies according to sine of the angle is known as sinusoidal
alternating quantity
(i) The sinusoidal voltage and currents produces low iron and copper losses in AC rotating
machines and transformers. It improves the efficiency.
(ii) Sinusoidal voltage and current will offer less interference to nearby telephone lines.
(iii) They produce less disturbance in the electrical circuit.

 The standard form of sinusoidal voltage

e = Em sin ωt = Em sin Ɵ
33
 The standard form of sinusoidal current
i = Im sin ωt=Im sin Ɵ

Fig: Generation of sinusoidal voltage waveform

 Cycle: It is a set of positive and negative portions of waveform.

 Time period (T): The time required for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called
time period.

 Frequency (f):The number of cycles occurring per second is called frequency.

Frequency, f = 1/T

Unit of frequency is Hertz (or) Cycles/second

 Amplitude: The maximum value, positive or negative of the alternating quantity is called
amplitude.

2.4.1 WAVEFORMS

 It is the graph between the alternating quantity and time. The alternating quantity may be
either voltage or current or flux. There are many types of waveforms.

34
 Fig: Types of waveforms
2.4.2 Instantaneous and RMS (ROOT MEAN SQUARE)Values of sinusoidal signals:
 The rms value of a sine wave is a measure of the heating effect of the wave.
 The rms value of a sine wave is equal to the dc voltage that produces the same heating
effect.
 The rms value is also called effective value

 For sinusoidal voltage

35
2.5 Introduction to 3-phase systems:
 A three-phase system is a type of polyphase electrical system in which three alternating
voltages (or currents) of the same frequency and magnitude are generated, but each phase
is displaced by 120° electrical from the others.
 Three-phase systems are widely used in power generation, transmission, and distribution
due to their efficiency and reliability.
 A three-phase supply consists of three single-phase AC supplies combined.
 The three phases are usually named R, Y, and B (or A, B, C).
 Phase difference between each phase = 120°.
 Generated by a three-phase alternator with three windings spaced 120° apart.

Fig: Three Phase waveform

 The three phase system induces in the generator which gives the three phase voltage of
equal magnitude and frequency.
 It provides an uninterruptible power, i.e., if one phase of the system is disturbed, then
the remaining two phases of the system continue supplies the power.
 The magnitude of the current in one phase is equal to the sum of the current in the other
two phases of the system.
 The 120º phase difference of the three phases is must for the proper working of the
system. Otherwise, the system becomes damaged.

Waveform Representation

If the phase voltages are:

 Then the system is said to be balanced.

36
Types of Connections in Three-Phase System
 The three-phase systems are connected in two ways, i.e., the star connection and the
delta connection. Their detail explanation is shown below.
Star Connection
 The star connection requires four wires in which there are three phase conductors and
one neutral conductor.
 Such type of connection is mainly used for long distance transmission because it has a
neutral point.
 The neutral point passes the unbalanced current to the earth and hence make the system
balance.

Fig: Three phase star connection

 The star connected three phase systems gives two different voltages, i.e., the 230 V and
440V.
 The voltage between the single phase and the neutral is 230V, and the voltage between
the two phases is equal to the 440V.
Delta Connection

 The delta connection has three wires, and there is a no neutral point. The delta
connection is shown in the figure below. The line voltage of the delta connection is
equal to the phase voltage.

Fig: Three Phase Delta Connection

37
  Under balance condition, all the phases and the line voltages are equal in magnitude.
Advantages of Three-Phase System
 Requires less conductor material compared to single-phase for the same power.
 Constant power delivery (no pulsations).
 Higher efficiency and better voltage regulation.
 Three-phase motors are self-starting and have higher torque.
 Economical for long-distance power transmission.
2.6 Electrical Safety:
 Electrical safety refers to the set of practices, precautions, and standards followed to
prevent electrical accidents, protect human life, and safeguard electrical equipment
from damage due to electric shock, fire, or explosions.
 Need for Electrical Safety
o To prevent electric shock and electrocution
o To avoid electrical fires
o To protect equipment and installations
o To ensure safe operation and maintenance of electrical systems
 Electrical Hazards
 Electric Shock
o Occurs when the human body becomes part of an electrical circuit.
o Severity depends on current magnitude, duration, and path through the body.
 Electrical Burns
o Caused by current passing through the body or by electric arcs.

 Arc Flash
o Sudden release of energy due to a fault, causing intense heat and light.
 Fire Hazards
o Due to short circuits, overloads, loose connections, or insulation failure.

 Safety Measures and Precautions

1. Proper Earthing (Grounding)
 Provides a low-resistance path for fault current.
 Prevents shock by keeping exposed metal parts at earth potential.
2. Use of Protective Devices

38
  Fuses: Protect against overcurrent.
 MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker): Trips during overload or short circuit.
 ELCB/RCCB: Protects against earth leakage current.
3. Insulation
 Proper insulation of conductors prevents leakage current and accidental contact.
4. Safe Operating Practices
 Switch off supply before maintenance.
 Use insulated tools and personal protective equipment (PPE).
 Avoid working in wet conditions.
5. Warning Signs and Labels
 Display danger notices near high-voltage equipment.

 Safety in Domestic Installations

 Use three-pin plugs with earthing.
 Avoid overloading sockets.
 Replace damaged wires and plugs immediately.
 Install RCCB for shock protection.

 Safety in Industrial Installations

 Regular inspection and maintenance.
 Proper isolation and lockout–tagout procedures.
 Use flameproof and explosion-proof equipment where required.
 First Aid for Electrical Accidents
 Switch off power supply immediately.
 Do not touch the victim directly until supply is disconnected.
 Use a dry insulating object to separate the victim.
 Provide CPR if required and seek medical help.
2.7 Fuses and Earthing
 Fuses and earthing are essential components of electrical safety systems. They protect human
life, electrical appliances, and installations from damage due to overcurrent, short circuits,
and earth faults.
 Fuses:
 A fuse is a protective device that interrupts the electric circuit when the current exceeds a safe
value. It works on the principle of heating effect of electric current.
39
  Construction
 Fuse element made of low melting point material (tin, lead, copper, or silver)
 Mounted in a porcelain or insulated holder
 Connected in series with the circuit
 Working Principle
When excessive current flows:
 Fuse element heats up
 Melts and breaks the circuit
 Prevents damage to equipment and wiring
 Types of Fuses
1. Rewirable (Kit-Kat) Fuse
o Used in domestic wiring
o Simple and low cost
2. Cartridge Fuse
o Used in industrial and commercial applications
o Reliable and enclosed type
3. HRC (High Rupturing Capacity) Fuse
o Can safely interrupt very high fault currents
o Used in substations and industries
 Advantages of Fuses
o Simple and inexpensive
o Fast operation
o Reliable overcurrent protection
 Limitations of Fuses
 Once blown, must be replaced
 Not suitable for repeated operation
 No protection against earth leakage (unless combined with earthing)
 Earthing (Grounding)
Earthing is the process of connecting the non-current-carrying metal parts of
electrical equipment to the earth through a low-resistance conductor.
Purpose of Earthing
 Protects users from electric shock

40
  Provides a safe path for fault current
 Ensures quick operation of protective devices
 Reduces risk of electrical fire
Types of Earthing
1. Plate Earthing
o Copper or GI plate buried in earth
o Used in buildings
2. Pipe Earthing
o GI pipe placed vertically in the ground
o Most commonly used method
3. Rod Earthing
o Copper or GI rod driven into the soil
o Suitable for rocky areas
Characteristics of Good Earthing
 Low earth resistance
 High conductivity
 Permanent and reliable connection
 Corrosion resistant

41
 UNIT 2
ELECTRIC MACHINES
DC Machines, Transformers, Star and delta Connections, Three phase Induction motors,
Synchronous Generators, Single Phase Induction Motors, Stepper Motor, Universal Motor and
BLDC motor.
Activities: Virtual demonstration of step-up and step-down transformers, Virtual working models of
Universal and BLDC motors, Solving GATE questions.
6. DC MACHINES
1.1 Introduction
 Electrical machines deals with the transfer of energy from one form to another either from
mechanical to electrical or electrical to mechanical.
 DC Machines can be used as a generator or as a motor. Hence DC Machines are classified in to:
i) DC Generator
ii) DC Motor

1.2 DC GENERATOR
 A dc generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy (dc voltage
and current) by using the principle of magnetic induction.
1.2.1 Construction:
 The construction of DC generator and DC motor are the same. Any DC generator can be run as a
DC Motor and vice-versa. All DC machines have a stator and Rotor.
 The stator consist of
 Yoke or Magnetic frame.
 Field system poles - Field winding, Inter-poles.
 The Rotor has the following parts
 Armature-Armature core, Armature winding.
 Commutator.
 Brushes.
 Bearing.

42
 Fig: Construction of DC Generator
 Yoke:
 It acts as a protecting cover for DC machine.
 It provides mechanical support for the poles.
 It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
 Material used:
 Small machine: cast iron
 Large machine: cast steel
 Pole core, pole shoes:
 Pole core carries field winding which is necessary to produce the flux.
 Pole shoes spread out the flux in the air gap and also to reduce the reluctance.
 They support the exciting coils.
 Material used:
 Small machine: cast iron
 Large machine: cast steel
 Inter poles:
 Inter poles or the commutating poles are fixed to the frame in between main poles.
 They are used for improve commutation.
 Field winding:
 The field winding is placed on the pole core.
 To carry the current and to produce the magnetic flux. Material used: It is made up of
aluminium or copper.
 Armature:
 It is further divided into two parts namely:
43
  Armature core
 Armature winding

Fig: Structure of Armature

 Armature core:
 It is cylindrical in shape with slots on its outer periphery.
 It is mounted on the shaft.
 It provides the house for armature conductors.
 Material used:
 Small machine: cast iron
 Large machine: cast steel
 Armature winding:
 The armature windings are placed into the slots on the armature surface.
 The ends of the coils are soldered with commutator segments.
 Functions: When the armature rotates an emf is induced in the armature conductors in
case of generators.
 Material used: Copper.
 Commutator:
 The basic nature of emf induced in the armature conductor is alternating.
 This needs rectification in case of DC generator, which is made possible by a device
called commutator.
 Material used: Copper.
 Brushes & Bearings:
 The function of brushes is to collect current from commutator.
1.2.2 Principle of operation:
 When a conductor move in a magnetic field in such a way conductors cuts across a magnetic flux
of lines and so the emf produces in a generator.
44
 It is defined by faradays law of electromagnetic induction emf causes current to flow if the
conductor circuit is closed.

Fig: Principle of operation

 Let us consider a single turn coil ABCD rotated on a shaft within a uniform magnetic field of flux
density. It is rotated in an anticlockwise direction.
 Let ‗l‘ be the length and ‗b‘ be the breadth of the coil in meters.
 When the coil sides AB and CD are moving parallel to the magnetic field, the flux lines are not
being cut and no emf is induced in the coil.
 When ‗θ‘ = 90º, the coil sides are moving at the right angles to the flux lines. The flux lines are
cut at maximum rate and the emf induced is maximum.
 At this position we assume the angle of rotation ‗θ‘ as zero.

 This vertical position of the coil is the starting position. According to Faraday‘s law II, the emf
induced is propositional to the rate of change of flux linkages.
𝑑
𝑒
𝑑𝑡
Where
 ‗N‘ is the number of turns,
 ‗φ ‘ is the flux and
 ‗t‘ is the time
 When ‗θ‘ = 180º, the coil sides are again moving parallel and the emf induced is zero.
 When ‗θ‘ = 270º, the coil sides are again move at right angle to the flux but with their position
reversed. Hence induced emf is maximum in opposite direction.
 When ‗θ‘ = 360º, the coil sides are once again move parallel to the magnetic field making induce
emf equal to zero.

45
 The coil has now come back to the starting point.

Fig: Generator terminal voltage

 The emf changes from instant to instant and becomes alternatively positive and negative. Such an
emf is called alternating emf.
 The induced emf in the coil can be increased by
(i) increasing the flux density (B) and
(ii) by increasing the angular velocity (ω).
 The current flowing in the external resistance to a D.C generator is made unidirectional by
connecting the coil side to a slip ring.
 The slip ring is split into two segments a and b and the segments are insulated from each other
and from shaft.
 The coil sides AB is always attached to the segment a and likewise CD to b.
 The brushes B1 and B2touch these segments and are meant to collect the current.
 During the first half revolution, current flows along ABLMCD through brush B1 which is
positive and into B2(negative brush) .
 After half a cycle AB and CD have exchanged positions along with the segments a and b and
current now flows, through DCLMBA. B1 is now in contact with b.
 For each half revolution, the positions of segments a and b also reverse. Hence the current in the
load is always unidirectional.
 The changeover of segments a and b takes place when flux linkage or induced emf is minimum.
In a generator, the split-rings are called commutator.
1.2.3 EMF equation of the DC generator:
Let, φ= flux per poles in weber
N= speed of armature in RPM
P= Number of poles
N/60 = Speed of armature in RPS

46
 Z = Total number of armature conductors
E = EMF induced in any parallel path in the armature in volts
A = Number of parallel paths.
 According to Faraday‘s law, the induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic
flux.

i.e.

 Let us consider a single conductor moving during one revolution. The flux produced by it is
given by,
𝑑 Weber

 Number of revolutions per second = seconds

 Time taken to complete one revolution, dt = seconds.

 According to Faraday‘s laws of electromagnetic induction.

 EMF generated / conductor = ……………….(1)

 Substituting, dφ=φP and dt = in equation (1) gives

( )

 EMF generated/conductor,

 Number of conductors in one path of armature =

EMF generated / path = ( ) Volts

 For wave winding, A= 2

EMF generated/path = ( ) Volts

 For lap winding, A=P

EMF generated/path = ( ) Volts

= Volts

47
1.2.4 Types of DC Generator
 Generators are generally classified according to their methods of field excitation. On this basis,
d.c. generators are divided into the following two types:
i) Separately excited d.c. generators
ii) Self-excited d.c. generators
Separately Excited DC Generator:
 A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied from an independent external d.c.
source (e.g., a battery etc.) is called a separately excited generator.

Fig: Separately excited DC generator

 Armature current Ia= load current IL
 Ra= Resistance of the armature winding.
 Terminal voltage V = Eg – Ia Ra - Vbrush
 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ = Voltage drop at contacts of the brush
 Generated emf Eg = V + IaRa + Vbrush
 Power developed in the armature, 𝑎= 𝐸𝑔𝐼𝑎
 Power delivered to load = 𝑉 Ia
Self-Excited D.C. Generators:
 A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied current from the output of the
generator itself is called a self-excited generator.
 There are three types of self-excited generators depending upon the manner in which the field
winding is connected to the armature, namely;
(a) Series generator;
(b) Shunt generator;
(c) Compound generator

48
(a) Series generator
 In a series generator, the field winding is connected in series with armature winding. So that
whole armature current flows through the field winding as well as the load.

Fig: Series Generator

 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑠𝑒
 Terminal voltage V = Eg – Ia Ra–𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑠𝑒–Vbrush
 Generated emf, 𝐸𝑔= 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎+ 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑠𝑒+ 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
 V= terminal voltage in volts.
 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎= Voltage drop in the armature resistance
 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑠𝑒= Voltage drop in the series field winding resistance
 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ = Voltage drop at contacts of the brush
 Power developed in the armature, 𝑎= 𝐸𝑔𝐼𝑎
 Power delivered to load, = 𝑉 𝐼𝑎(or) 𝑉 𝐼L
(b) Shunt generator
 In a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding.
 Only a part of armature current flowsthrough shunt field winding and the rest flows through
the [Link] is a ―constant speed‖ machine.

Fig: Shunt Generator

49
 Terminal Voltage V = Eg – Ia Ra

 Shunt field current, Ish

 Armature current, 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿+ 𝐼𝑠ℎ

 Power developed in the armature, 𝑎= 𝐸𝑔𝐼𝑎
 Power delivered to load, = 𝑉 𝐼L
(c) Compound generator:
 In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field windings on each pole,one is in
series and the other in parallel with the armature.
 Depending upon these two winding connections, it is further classified into two types
 Long shunt compound generator
 Short shunt compound generator
Long shunt compound generator
 Shunt field winding is connected between both series and armature winding.

Fig; Long Shunt Compound Generator

 Series field current, 𝐼𝑠𝑒= 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿+ 𝐼𝑠ℎ

 Shunt field current, Ish

 Generated emf, 𝐸𝑔= 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎+ 𝑅𝑠𝑒) + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ

 Terminal voltage V= 𝐸𝑔- 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎+ 𝑅𝑠𝑒) - 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
 Power developed in the armature, 𝑎= 𝐸𝑔𝐼𝑎
 Power delivered to load, = 𝑉 𝐼L
Short shunt compound generator
 Shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and this combination is
Connected in series with series field winding.

50
 Fig: Short Shunt Compound Generator
 Load current, 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑠𝑒(series field current)
 Armature current, Ia = Ish + Ise
 Shunt field current,
 Generated emf, 𝐸𝑔= 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎+ 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑅𝑠𝑒+ 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
 Terminal Voltage V= 𝐸𝑔- 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎- 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑅𝑠𝑒- 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
 Power developed in the armature, 𝑎= 𝐸𝑔𝐼𝑎
 Power delivered to load, = 𝑉 𝐼L
1.2.5 Application of DC generator
 As a supply source to DC Motors, whose speed is to be controlled for certain applications.
Where a wide range of voltage is required for the testing purposes.
 DC Shunt Generator:
 The terminal voltage of DC shunt generator is more or less constant from no load to full
load .Therefore it is used where constant voltage is required.
 For electro plating
 Battery charging
 For excitation of Alternators.
 DC Series Generator:
 The terminal voltage of series generator increases with load current from no load to full
load .Therefore these generators are,
 Used as Boosters
 Used for supply to arc Lamps
 DC Compound Generator:
 Differential Compound generators are used to supply dc welding machines.
 Level compound generators are used to supply power for offices, hostels and Lodges etc.
 Over compound generators are used to compensate the voltage drop in Feeders.
51
1.3 DC MOTOR

1.3.1 Introduction
 A machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is known as dc motor.
 Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force.
 The fundamental principles and construction of the DC motors are identical with the DC
generators.
 A DC machine that runs as a motor will also operate as a generator.

1.3.2 Construction of DC Motor

 DC motor has such basic components, as a stator (stationary part of the element producing
magnetic field) and a rotor part that rotates carrying winding or coil.

 When a DC voltage is connected to the coil, current flows through it and generates an
electromagnetic field.

 When the magnetic field of this rotor interacts with that produced by the stator, a torque is induced
which causes this piece to start spinning.

Fig: Construction of DC Motor

52
 DC Motor Parts
 DC achine has the following main parts:
 Field System or Stator
 Armature
 Commutator
 Brushes
 Field Coil or Stator
 As the name suggests, the field coil or stator is the non moving or the stationary part of
the DC motor around which coil is wounded and produce magnetic field.
 The stator consists of various parts:
 Yoke
 Pole Core
 Pole Body
 Shoe for the pole
 Field Winding
 End Plates
 Yoke: The structure of a DC machine works to create the magnetic circuit between the
poles.
 Pole Core: Pole Core is usually of laminated iron or other magnetic material. Its
function is to serve as a passage for the magnetic flux generated by the field winding.
 Pole Body: Pole body works with the pole core. When an electric current passes
through the field winding, a magnetic flux is established not only in the pole core but
also around it. The poles and their bearings are known as the pole body.
 Shoe: Shoe is a synonym for one of the brushes inside an electric motor. DC motors
have brushes to make contact with the rotating armature, and typically they are sodded.
 Field Winding: Field winding is on the pole core next to the stator. Field winding uses
insulated copper wire. An insulated copper coil is wound round the pole core. If this coil
on the pole core is excited with direct current, we get magnetic flux.
 End Plates: End plates encapsulate the entire motor. They provide a casing for all of
the internal parts--the armature, commutator and brushes as well sometimes also
including field windings

53
 Armature
 Armature is the rotating part of the motor which generates mechanical energy. Armature
core has windings.
 The armature core is made of 0.3 to 0.5 mm thick high magnetic strength (silicon steel
lamination) and a thin layer of varnish is applied on each sheet.
 Commutator
 Commutators are used in DC appliances such as DC Motors and DC Generators.
 It periodically reverses the current between the armature and the circuit and produces
steady torque
 Brushes
 Brushes or often called Carbon Brushes are made up of graphite.
 In DC Motors, brushes supplies current to the winding of the armature.

1.3.2 Principle of Operation of DC Motor

Principle:
 The basic principle of operation of DC motor is a ―Whenever current carrying conductor is
placed in magnetic field, the conductor experiences a force tending to move it‖.
 The force whose direction is given by Fleming‘s Left-Hand Rule and whose magnitude is
given by
F = BIL Newtons
Where,
B = Magnetic field intensity in wb/m2
I = Current in Amperes
L = Length of the conductor in meter
Operation:
 When voltage is applied to the loop of wire a current flows, and a magnetic field is created
that will interact with the field of the magnet.
 Repulsion and attraction of the fields will cause the loop to turn.
 The loop moves away from the strong field toward the weak field.
 The direction of the rotation can be determined by ―the right-hand rule‖.

54
 Fig: Principle of Operation of DC Motor
 In a dc motor, the stator poles are supplied by dc excitation current, which produces a dc
magnetic field.
 The rotor is supplied by dc current through the brushes, commutator and coils.
 The interaction of the magnetic field and rotor current generates a force that drives the motor.
 A current is supplied to the coil by a battery and the torque acting on the current carrying coil
causes it to rotate.
1.3.3 Back emf of a Motor:
 As the coil rotates in a magnetic field, an emf is induced in the coil. This induced emf always
acts to reduce the current in the coil and is called back emf.
 The back emf increases in magnitude as the rotational speed of the coil increases.

Eb = ( )

1.3.4 Torque and Speed Equations of the DC Motor:

 Torque is turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis. It is measured by the product of
the force and the radius at which this force acts.
 Consider a pulley of radius ‗r‘ meter acted upon by a circumferential force of ‗F‘ newton
which causes it to rotate at speed N rpm.
Torque, T = F × r (Nm)
 Work done by this force in one revolution = Force x distance
W= F x 2 r joules.

 P = Power developed = Work done/time

P= =

P = (F x r) x

P = T x ω Watts
Where,

55
 T  Torque in Nm
ω  Angular speed in rad/sec =

P= Watts

1.3.5 Armature Torque of a motor:

 Let ‗Ta‘ be the gross torque developed by the armature of motor running at rpm. It is also
called armature torque.

 Power developed in armature = ……………………. (i)

 We also know that Electrical power converted into mechanical power in the Armature =
𝐸𝑏𝐼𝑎…….….. (ii) Equating (i) and (ii) we get,

= Eb Ia

 But ‗𝐸𝑏‘ in a motor is given by

Eb = ( )

= ( )Ia

( )

( )

 Speed and Torque Equation: For a DC motor, the speed equation is obtained as follows: We
know

Eb = V- IaRa = ( )

V- IaRa = ( )

N= ( )

 Since for a given machine, 𝑍, 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

N=

Where ‗𝐾‘ is constant.

 Speed equation becomes

56
 1.3.6 DC MOTOR TYPES
The types of DC motors are
1. DC Series motor
2. DC Shunt motor
3. DC Compound motor
1. DC series motor:
 In DC series motor means the field winding is connected in series with armature. Same current
flows through field as armature.

Fig: DC Series motor

 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − (𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼se𝑅𝑠𝑒 + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ)
 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑠𝑒
 Hence 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 −𝐼(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒)+ 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎= Voltage drop in the armature resistance
𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑠𝑒= Voltage drop in the series field winding resistance
𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ= Voltage drop at connects of the brush
 Normally Vbrush is neglected and hence 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒)
2. DC Shunt motor:
 In DC shunt motor, the field winding is connected across the armature.
 A ―constant speed‖ machine.

Fig : DC Shunt motor

57
  Shunt field current, Ish=

 Armature current, 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿− 𝐼𝑠ℎ

 𝐼L= 𝐼a+𝐼𝑠ℎ
 Back emf, 𝐸𝑏= 𝑉𝐿− 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎− 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 −𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒)+ 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ

3. Compound DC motor:

 The DC compound motor consists of both series and shunt field windings.

Fig: Compound DC motor

 Depending upon these two winding connections, it is further classified into two types
 Long shunt compound Motor
 Short shunt compound Motor
Long Shunt Compound Motor:

 Shunt field winding is connected between both series and armature winding.

Fig: Long Shunt Compound DC motor

58
  Series field current, 𝑠𝑒= 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿− 𝐼𝑠ℎ (𝑜𝑟)𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑎+ 𝐼𝑠ℎ

 Shunt field current, Ish =

 Back emf, 𝐸𝑏= 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎+ 𝑅𝑎𝑒) − 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ

 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 −𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒)+ 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ

Short Shunt Compound Motor

 Shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and this combination is
connected in series with series field winding.

Fig: Short Shunt Compound Motor

 Load current, 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑠𝑒
 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑎+ 𝐼𝑠ℎ

 Shunt field current, Ish =

 Generated emf, 𝐸𝑏= 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎− 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑅𝑠𝑒− Vse

1.3.7 Applications of DC Motors
 D.C Shunt Motors:
 It is a constant speed [Link] the speed is required to remain almost constant from
no load to full load.
 Where the load has to be driven at a number of speeds and any one of which is nearly
constant.
 Industrial use:
 Lathes
 Drills
 Boring mills
 Shapers

59
  Spinning and
 Weaving machines.
 D.C Series motor:
 It is a variable speed [Link] speed is low at high torque. At light or no load the
motor speed attains dangerously high speed.
 The motor has a high starting torque.(elevators,electric traction)
 Industrial Uses:
 Electric traction
 Cranes
 Elevators
 Air compressor
 D.C Compound motor:
 Differential compound motors are rarely used because of its poor torque characteristics.
 Industrial uses:
 Presses Shears
 Reciprocating machine.

2. TRANSFORMERS

2.1 Introduction:
 The transformer is a static device which transforms electrical power from one alternating
current circuit to another with desired change in voltage and current, without any change in
frequency.
 Thus the transformer is used to increase (step up) or decrease (step down) the voltage as per
the requirement.
 Induced e.m.f. can be either
(i) Dynamically induced
(ii) Statically induced
 Dynamically induced e.m.f:
 In the first case, usually the field is stationary and conductors cut across it. e.g. D.C.
generators.
 Statically induced e.m.f:

60
  The conductors or the coil remains stationary and flux linked with it is changed by simply
increasing or decreasing the current producing this flux. e.g. transformers.
 This e.m.f can be further sub divided into
1. Mutually induced e.m.f
2. Self induced e.m.f.

Fig: Transformer

2.2 Classification of a Transformer

 Classification of transformer based on primary-secondary arrangement, Transformers are

classified on the basis of:
 Duty they perform:
 Power transformer - for transmission and distribution purposes
 Current transformer - instrument transformers.
 Potential transformer - instrument transformers.
 Construction:
 Core type transformer.
 Shell type transformer.
 Berry type transformer.
 Voltage output:
 Step-up transformer: The number of turns in the secondary winding is higher
than the primary winding.
 Step-down transformer: The number of turns in the secondary winding is less
than the primary winding.
 Application:
 Welding transformer.
61
  Furnace transformer.
 Cooling:
 Duct type transformer
 Oil immersed.
→ Self-cooled.
→ Forced air cooled.
→ Water cooled.
→ Forced oil cooled.
 Input supply:
 Single phase transformer.
 Three phase transformer.
→ Star-star.
→ Star-delta.
→ Delta-delta.
→ Delta-star.
→ Open-delta.
→ Scott connection.
2.2 Constructional details of a transformer
 Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. A transformer is a static
device which changes the alternating voltage from one level to another at same frequency.
 It consists of two windings insulated from each other and wound on a common core made up
of magnetic material.
 The main components of a transformer are
1. The magnetic core.
2. Primary and secondary windings.
3. Insulation of windings.
4. Conservator.
5. Lead and tapping‘s for coils with the supports, terminals and terminal insulators. Tank,
Oil, Cooling arrangement, temperature gauge, oil gauge.
6. Buchholz relay.
7. Silica gel breather.

The magnetic core:

62
  Magnetic circuit consists of an iron core.

 The transformer core is generally laminated and is made out of a good magnetic material
like silicon steel.

 The laminations are insulated from each other by coating them with a thin coat of
varnish.

Fig: Various types of Stampings and Laminations

 The joints are staggered to avoid continuous gap causing increase in magnetising
current.
 The two types of transformers are:
1. Core type. 2. Shell type
Core type transformer:
 The windings surround a considerable part of core and have only one magnetic path.
 It has two limbs for the two windings and is made up of two L-type stampings.

Fig: Core type transformer

 The coils used usually are of cylindrical type and usually wound. For transformer of
higher rating, stepped core with circular cylindrical coils are used.
 For transformer of smaller rating, rectangular coils with core of square are used.
Insulating cylinders are used to separate windings from the core and from each other.

63
Shell type transformer:

Fig: Shell type Transformer

 The core surrounds a considerable part of windings. The two windings are carried by
central limb.
 The core made up of E and I stampings and has three limbs. It has two parallel paths
for magnetic flux.
 The coils used are of multilayer disc type and are former wound in the form of pan-
cakes. Each layer is insulated from each other by paper.
Windings:

 There are two windings in a transformer. They are called primary and secondary
windings. Generally the windings are made up of copper.
Insulating oil:

 The oil used in transformer protects the paper from dust and moisture and removes the
heats produced in the core and coils.

 It also acts as insulating medium. The oil must possess the following properties. High
dielectric strength.

 Free from inorganic acid, alkali and corrosive sulphur to prevent injury to the
conductor.

 Low viscosity to provide good heat transfer.

 Good resistance to emulsion so that the oil may throw down any moisture entering the
tank instead of holding it in suspense.
64
Conservator:

 The main tank of the transformer is connected by a pipe to a small auxiliary tank
mounted above the main tank.

 The oil level of a transformer changes with change in temperature of oil which in turn
depends upon the load on the transformer.

 The oil expands with the increase in load and contracts when the load decreases.

 The function of the expansion tank is to keep the main tank of the transformer
completely filled with the changes in temperature.
Buchholz relay:

 The first warning that a fault is present may be given by the presence of bubbles in the
oil.

 If the transformer is fitted with a conservator and there are no pockets in which gas can
collect, the gas bubbles will rise up the pipe joining the conservator to the tank.

 It is used to give alarm in case of minor fault and to disconnect the transformer from
supply main in case of severe internal faults.
Breather:

 In between the main and conservator tanks, some chemical compound in a pot is fitted
externally. This is called as silica gel.

 If any moisture tries to enter from atmospheric air existing over the conservator oil
level into transformer tank through oil, then immediately the silica gel absorbs the
moisture.

Fig: Transformer Construction

65
 Cooling arrangement in transformers:
➢ Oil immersed natural cooled transformers.
➢ Oil immersed forced air cooled transformers.
➢ Oil immersed water cooled transformers.
➢ Oil immersed forced oil cooled transformers
➢ Air blast transformers.
2.3 Principle of operation of transformer
 Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 A transformer is a static device which changes the alternating voltage from one level to
another at same frequency.
 It consists of two windings insulated from each other and wound on a common core made up
of magnetic material.
 Alternating voltage is connected across one of the windings called the primary windings.
 In both the windings e.m.f is induced by electromagnetic induction. The second winding is
called the secondary winding.

Fig: Transformer
Working principle of a transformer:
 When primary winding is connected to an ac source an exciting current flow through the
winding.
 As the current is alternating, it will produce an alternating flux in the core which will be linked
by both the primary and secondary windings.
 The induced e.m.f in the primary winding (E1) is almost equal to the applied voltage V1 and
will oppose the applied voltage.
 The e.m.f induced in the secondary winding (E2) can be utilized to deliver power to any load
connected across the secondary.
66
 Thus power is transferred from the primary to the secondary circuit by electromagnetic
induction.
 The flux in the core will alternate at the same frequency as the frequency of the supply
voltage.
 The frequency of induced e.m.f in the secondary is the same as that of the supply voltage.
 The magnitude of the e.m.f induced in the secondary winding will depends upon its number of
turns.
 If the number of turns in the secondary winding is higher than the primary winding, it is called
as step-up transformer.
 If the number of turns in the secondary winding is less than the primary winding, it is called as
step-down transformer.

Fig: Step up and Step down transformer

2.4 Applications of Transformer:
Transformers are used in:
 Electrical power engineering for transmission and distribution.
 As an instrument transformer for measuring current (CT) and measuring voltage (PT).
 As a step down transformer and step up transformer to get reduced or increased output
voltage.
 Radio and TV circuits, telephone circuits, control and instrumentation.
 Furnaces and welding transformer.
2.5 E.M.F equation of Transformer
Consider a transformer as shown in figure.

Fig: Simple transformer circuit

67
  Since applied voltage is alternating in nature, the flux established is also an alternating
one.
 From the figure it is clear that the flux is attaining its maximum value in one quarter of the
cycle i.e., T/4 sec where ‗T‘ is the time period in second.

Fig: Output waveform

 Φm = maximum flux in the core in Webbers. = Bm x A

 Average rate of change of flux =

= 4f Φm wb/sec
 If we assume single turn coil, the according to faraday‘s law of electromagnetic induction,
 Average value of e.m.f induced/turn = 4fΦm volt
 For sinusoidal wave form

Form factor = =1.11

 R.M.S value of e.m.f induced/turn =1.11 x 4fΦm =4.44 x fΦm volt

 Now R.M.S value of e.m.f induced in primary winding E1 = 4.44FN1Φm volt
E1= 4.44f N1BmA volt ……….(1)
 Similarly, R.M.S value of e.m.f induced in secondary winding. E2 = 4.44 f N2 Φm
E2 = 4.44 f N2 BmA volt ……….(2)
Where,
N1- Number of primary turns.
N2- Number of secondary turns.
Фm- Maximum value of flux in the core in wb.
Bm- Maximum value of flux density in the core in wb/m2.
A-Area of the core in m2.
f- Frequency of the AC supply in Hertz.
68
 V1- Supply voltage across primary in volts
V2 - Supply voltage across primary in volts.
I1 - Full load primary current in amperes.
I2 - Full load secondary in amperes.
E1- E.m.f induced in the primary in volts.
E2- E.m.f induced in the secondary in volts.
Voltage Transformation Ratio:

 The transformation ratio is defined as of the ratio of the secondary voltage to primary
voltage. It is denoted by K. From the equations of induced e.m.f E1 and E2 we get,
V1 = E1; V2 = E2
V1I1 = V2I2

; …………..(3)

 From equations 2 and 1

…………(4)

 From equations 3 and 4

 This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

 If N2 > N1 i.e. K>1, then transformer is called step up transformer.

 If N2< N1 i.e. K<1, then transformer is called step down transformer.

 Again for an Ideal Transformer

Voltage ratio = =K

Current ratio = =K

69
3. STAR AND DELTA CONNECTIONS

3.1 Introduction:

 In three-phase AC systems, the three phase windings (or loads) can be connected in Star
(Y) or Delta (Δ) form.

 These connections decide the relationship between line voltage, phase voltage, line current,
and phase current, and hence affect power transmission, insulation level, and starting
current of machines.

 Star and Delta are two fundamental ways to connect three-phase windings in electrical
machines (motors, generators, transformers) to control voltage, current, speed, and torque;

 Star provides a neutral point, lower phase voltage ( 𝑉 √ ), good for transmission/light
loads.

 While Delta forms a closed loop, full phase voltage (VL), high torque/speed, ideal for
distribution/heavy loads, with starters using a temporary Star-to-Delta transition to reduce
high starting currents.

3.2 STAR (Y) CONNECTION

 In a Star connection, one end of each of the three phase windings is connected to a common
point called the neutral (N), and the other ends are connected to the three line conductors
(R, Y, B).

Fig: Star (Y) Connection

 Voltage Relationship
Line Voltage : VL
Phase Voltage: Vph

70
 VL = √ 𝑉

Vph =
√

 Current Relationship IL = Iph

 Power in Star Connection
P=√ 𝑉 𝐼

Advantages

 Neutral point available → suitable for single-phase loads

 Lower phase voltage → less insulation required

 Reduced starting current

Disadvantages

 Less power output compared to Delta for same line voltage

 Not suitable where high current is required

Applications

 Power transmission and distribution

 Alternators

 Star-connected induction motor starting

3.3 DELTA (Δ) CONNECTION

 In a Delta connection, the three phase windings are connected end-to-end forming a
closed loop. Line conductors are taken from each junction.

Fig: Delta connections

71
  Voltage Relationship
Line Voltage : VL
Phase Voltage: Vph
VL = 𝑉

 Current Relationship IL = √ 𝐼
 Power in Star Connection
P=√ 𝑉 𝐼

Advantages

 Delivers higher power

 Suitable for high current applications
 No neutral required

Disadvantages

 No neutral point
 Higher phase voltage → more insulation needed

Applications

 Induction motors (normal running)

 Industrial loads
 Transformers (Delta side)

4. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

4.1 Introduction:
 The three phase induction motor is generally treated as rotating transformer.
 The transformer has two windings one is primary and the other is secondary windings.
Similarly in induction motor, stator acts as a primary and the rotor acts as a secondary.
 The transformer as well the induction motor operates same principle of mutual induction.

4.2 Construction of 3-phase induction motor

 A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts,
(i) Stator

72
 (ii) Rotor
 The rotor is separated from the stator by a small air-gap which ranges from 0.4mm to 4
mm, depending on the power of the motor.
1. Stator :
 It consists of a steel frame.
 It encloses a hollow cylindrical core.
 It is made up of thin laminations of silicon steel.
 Lamination reduces the hysteresis and eddy current losses.
 A number of evenly spaced slots are provided on the inner periphery of the laminations

Fig: Stator of a 3-phase induction motor

 The insulated slots are housing the winding and it is connected to form a balanced 3-
phase star or delta connected circuit.
 The 3-phase stator winding is wound for a definite number of poles as per requirement
of speed.
 Greater the number of poles, lesser is the speed of the motor and vice-versa.
2. Rotor
 The rotor is mounted on a shaft. It has a hollow laminated core. Core has slots on its
outer periphery. The winding may be one of the following two types:
(i) Squirrel cage rotor
(ii) Slipring (or) Wound rotor
(i) Squirrel cage rotor.
 It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots on its outer periphery.
One copper or aluminum bar is placed in each slot.
 All these bars are joined at each end by metal rings called end rings. This forms a
permanently short-circuited winding.
 The rotor is not connected electrically to the supply but has current induced in it by
transformer action from the stator.
73
 Fig: Squirrel cage rotor
 Those induction motors which employ squirrel cage rotor are called squirrel cage
induction motors. Most of 3-phase induction motors use squirrel cage rotor.
 It has a remarkably simple and robust construction. It enables it to operate in the most
adverse circumstances.
 It suffers from the disadvantage of a low starting torque. It is because the rotor bars are
permanently short-circuited.
 It is not possible to add any external resistance to the rotor circuit to have a large starting
torque.
( ii ) Slip ring (or) Wound rotor :

 It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3- phase winding, similar to the
one on the stator . The rotor winding is uniformly distributed in the slots and is usually
star-connected.

Fig: External Resistor connected to wound rotor

 The open ends of the rotor winding are brought out and joined to three insulated slip
rings mounted on the rotor shaft with one brush resting on each slip ring.

 At starting, the external resistances are included in the rotor circuit to give a large
starting torque.

74
  These resistances are gradually reduced to zero as the motor runs up to speed.
Advantages of Induction Motor

i) It has simple and rugged construction.

ii) It is relatively cheap.

iii) It requires little maintenance.

iv) It has high efficiency and reasonably good power factor. v) It has self-starting
torque.
Disadvantages of Induction Motor

i) It is essentially a constant speed motor and its speed cannot be changed easily.

ii) Its starting torque is inferior to a d.c. shunt motor.

4.3 Principle of operation:
 When 3-phase stator winding is energized fiom a 3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic

field is set up which rotates round the stator at synchronous speed (NS =

 The rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the stationary rotor conductors.
 Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary rotor, e.m.f.s are
induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor circuit is short circuited, currents start
flowing in the rotor conductors.
 The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced by the
stator.
 Mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors.
 The sum of the mechanical forces on all the rotor conductors produces a rotating torque.
It moves the rotor in the same direction as the rotating field.

Fig: Operation of Induction Motor.

75
 According to Lenz‘s law, the direction of rotor currents will be such that they tend to
oppose the cause producing them.
 Now, the cause producing the rotor currents is the relative speed between the rotating
field and the stationary rotor conductors.
 To reduce this relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of
stator field and tries to catch it.
 If a balanced 3 phase supply is given to a balanced 3 phase winding, it produces rotating
magnetic field of constant amplitude. This speed is called as synchronous speed.
 The speed of the rotating magnetic field is given by

NS =

Where,
f = frequency of the supply
P = number of poles
 Stator of induction motor can be star or delta connected. The three phase windings are
displaced from each other by 1200.

Fig: 3-phase waveform

 The difference between the synchronous speed Ns and the actual speed N of the rotor is
known as slip.
 It is usually expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed.
 Actually, the term ‗slip‘ is descriptive of the way in which the rotor ‗slips back‘ from
synchronism.

 Sometimes, Ns – N is called the slip speed.

 Obviously, rotor (or motor) speed is N = Ns(1-s).

76
4.4 Torque equation
 In DC motor, torque is proportional to the product of the armature and flux per pole,
i.e., T Ia .
 Incase of induction motor, the flux and rotor current, the rotor power factor has also been taken
into account. Hence,
T I2r …………… (1)
Where,
 Flux responsible to produce induced emf
I2r  Rotor current under running condition.
 Rotor power factor under running condition.
 let E2 be the rotor induced emf per phase under standstill condition and X2 be the rotor
reactance per phase under standstill condition. since the rotor frequency at a slip is
fr = sf.

77
  Condition for Maximum Torque Under Running Conditions:

 Equation (8) is known as maximum torque of a three phase induction motor.

78
5. SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
5.1 Introduction:
 Synchronous generator is defined the conversion of mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
 The other name of synchronous generator is AC Generator or Alternators.
5.2 Construction and working
 An alternator has 3-phase winding on the stator and a DC field winding on the rotor.

Fig: 3-phase Alternators

 Stator
 It is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of sheet-steel laminations
having slots on its inner periphery.
 A 3-phase winding is placed in these slots and serves as the armature winding of the
alternator.
 The armature winding is always connected in star and the neutral is connected to
ground.

 Rotor

 The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current through two
slip rings by a separate D.C. source.

 This D.C. source (called exciter) is generally a small D.C. shunt or compound
generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator.

 Rotor construction

 Salient (or projecting) pole type

 Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole type

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a) Salient pole type

 Salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large circular steel frame which is
fixed to the shaft of the alternator.

 The individual field pole windings are connected in series in such a way that when
the field winding is energized by the D.C. exciter, adjacent poles have opposite
polarities.

Fig: Salient pole type synchronous generator

 Used for Low and medium-speed alternators (120-400 r.p.m.)

b) Non-salient pole type

 In this type, the rotor is made of smooth solid forged-steel radial cylinder having a
number of slots along the outer periphery.
 The field windings are embedded in these slots and are connected in series to the
slip rings through which they are energized by the DC exciter.
 The regions forming the poles are usually left unslotted. It is clear that the poles
formed are non-salient i.e., they do not project out from the rotor surface.
 Used for high-speed alternators (1500 or 3000 rpm).

Fig: Non- salient Pole type synchronous generator

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 5.3 E.M.F. EQUATION:
 Let Z = No. of conductors or coil sides in series per phase
 ϕ = Flux per pole in webers
 P = Number of rotor poles
 N = Rotor speed in r.p.m.
 In one revolution (i.e. 60/N second), each stator conductor is cut by Pφ webers i.e.,

 If Kp and Kd are the pitch factor and distribution factor of the armature winding, then,

 Sometimes the turns (T) per phase rather than conductors per phase are specified, in that case, eq.
becomes,

6. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

6.1 Introduction
 The motors which work on single phase a.c. supply is very popularly in use in shops, offices,
houses, schools etc. These a.c. motors are called single phase induction motors.
 The numerous domestic applications use single phase motors. The power rating of such
motors is very small.
 Some of them are even fractional horse power motors, which are used in applications like
small toys, small fans, hair dryers etc.

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6.2 Construction of single phase Induction Motors:

 Single phase induction motor has basically two main parts. One is rotating and other is
stationary.

 The stationary part in single phase induction motors is called stator while the rotating part is
called rotor.

 The stator has laminated construction, made up of stampings. The stampings are slotted on its
periphery to carry the winding called stator winding or main winding.

 This is excited by a single phase a.c. supply. The laminated construction keeps iron losses to
minimum.

 The stampings are made up of material like silicon steel which minimizes the hysteresis loss.
The stator winding is wound for certain definite number of poles means when excited by
single phase a.c. supply, stator produces the magnetic field which creates the effect of certain
definite number of poles.

 The number of poles for which stator winding is wound, decides the synchronous speed of the
motor.

 The synchronous speed is denoted as Ns and it has a fixed relation with supply frequency f
and number of poles P. The relation is given by,

NS = r.p.m

 The induction motor never rotates with the synchronous speed but rotates at a speed which is
slightly less than the synchronous speed.

 The rotor construction is of squirrel cage type. In this type, rotor consists of uninsulated
copper or aluminum bars, placed in the slots.

 The bars are permanently shorted at both the ends with the help of conducting rings called end
rings.

 The entire structure looks like cage hence called squirrel cage rotor. The construction and
symbol is shown in the Fig.

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 Fig: Squirrel cage rotor

 As the bars are permanently shorted to each other, the resistance of the entire rotor is very
small. The air gap between stator and rotor is kept uniform and as small as possible.

 The main feature of this rotor is that it automatically adjusts itself for same number of poles as
that of the stator winding.

 The schematic representation of two pole single phase induction motor is shown in the Fig

Fig: Two pole motor

 The slip of the rotor is given by Sf =

 With respect to the forward rotating flux (i.e., one which rotates in the same direction as
rotor).

 The slip with respect to the backward flux is

Sf = = 1+ =1+1-s =2 –s

Sb = 2-s

 Each of the two component fluxes while revolving around the stator cuts the rotor induces an
emf and produces its own torque.

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  The two torques are oppositely directed so that the net torque is zero i.e., resultant torque is
equal to their differences.
Applications:
➢ Fans, ➢ Blowers,
➢ Centrifugal pumps, ➢ Washing machine,
➢ Grinder, ➢ Lathes,
➢ Air conditioning fans, etc.
7. STEPPER MOTOR

7.1 Introduction:
 A stepper Motor is basically a synchronous Motor. In a stepper motor, there are no brushes. •
This motor does not rotate continuously; instead it rotates in the form of pulses or in discrete
steps. That is why it is called stepper motor.
 There are different types of motors available on the basis of steps per rotation, for example-12
steps per rotation, 24 steps per rotation etc. •
 We can control or operate Stepper motor with the feedback or without any feedback. A simple
image of stepper motor is shown in above picture.
7.2 Types of Stepper Motor:
 The Stepper Motors are of following types:
i) Permanent Magnet
ii) Variable Reluctance.
iii)Hybrid Stepper Motor

i) Permanent Magnet Type Stepper Motor

 The Working and Construction of the Permanent Magnet Type Stepper Motor is given
below:
 Construction
 The permanent magnet type stepper motor has a stator, that is made of
electromagnets.
 The rotor that is of Permanent Magnet, therefore this motor is called permanent
magnet type stepper motor.

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  Working
 When supply is given to the stator, the winding of stator is energized and hence
produces magnetic field.
 As described above, the rotor is made up of permanent magnet. That is why it
tends to follow the revolving field. Thus, a stepper motor works.
 The speed or torque of a permanent magnet type motor is changed by the number
of poles used in stator.
 If we use a large number of poles in stator then the speed of motor will increase
and if we use a less number of poles then the speed will decrease.
 The diagram of Permanent Magnet Type Stepper Motor is given below:

Fig: Permanent Magnet Type Stepper Motor

ii) Variable Reluctance Motor:
 In Variable reluctance stepper motor, we use a nonmagnetic iron core rotor, which has
winding on its surface.
 The stator is same as used in the Permanent Type Stepper Motor.
 Working:
 When we give supply to the stator, a magnetic field is induced in the stator
winding which causes an e.m.f. induction in the rotor's winding.
 Thus, a magnetic field is also set up in the rotor which tends to follow the
magnetic field of stator.
 The diagram of Variable reluctance stepper motor is given below:

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 Fig: Variable Reluctance Motor
 The speed control method is almost same as in the permanent magnet type motor.
In this motor, we can increase the speed by increasing the number of poles of
stator as well as by increasing the number of teeth of rotor and vice versa.
iii) Hybrid Type Stepper Motor:
 The Hybrid type motor, as the name suggests is a mixture of both the above types. This
consists a rotor which is magnetic and as well as teethed. The diagram of the
construction of this motor is shown below:

Fig: Hybrid Type Stepper Motor

Applications of stepper motors:
 Linear actuators, linear stages, rotation stages, goniometers, and mirror mounts.
 Commercially, stepper motors are used in floppy disk drives, scanners, computer
printers, plotters, slot machines, image scanners, compact disc drives, intelligent
lighting, camera lenses, CNC machines and, more recently, in 3D printers.
8. UNIVERSAL MOTOR

8.1 Introduction:
 An universal motor is a special type of motor which is designed to run on either DC or
single phase AC supply.
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  These motors are generally series wound (armature and field winding are in series), and
hence produce high starting torque.

 They run at lower speed on AC supply than they run on DC supply of same voltage, due to
the reactance voltage drop which is present in AC and not in DC.

8.2 Construction of Universal Motor:

 Construction of a universal motor is very similar to the construction of a DC machine. It
consists of a stator on which field poles are mounted. Field coils are wound on the field
poles.

Fig: Universal Motor

 However, the whole magnetic path (stator field circuit and also armature) is laminated.
Lamination is necessary to minimize the eddy currents which induce while operating on
AC.

 The rotary armature is of wound type having straight or skewed slots and commutator with
brushes resting on it.

 The commutation on AC is poorer than that for DC, because of the current induced in the
armature coils. For that reason brushes used are having high resistance.

8.3 Working of Universal Motor:

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  A universal motor works on either DC or single phase AC supply. When the universal
motor is fed with a DC supply, it works as a DC series motor.

 When current flows in the field winding, it produces an electromagnetic field. The same
current also flows from the armature conductors.

 When a current carrying conductor is placed in an electromagnetic field, it experiences a

mechanical force. Due to this mechanical force, or torque, the rotor starts to rotate. The
direction of this force is given by Fleming's left hand rule.

 When fed with AC supply, it still produces unidirectional torque. Because, armature
winding and field winding are connected in series, they are in same phase. Hence, as
polarity of AC changes periodically, the direction of current in armature and field winding
reverses at the same time.

 Thus, direction of magnetic field and the direction of armature current reverses in such a
way that the direction of force experienced by armature conductors remains same. Thus,
regardless of AC or DC supply, universal motor works on the same principle that DC series
motor works.

8.4 Speed Torque Characteristics:

Fig: Speed torque characteristics

 By increasing the torque, the motor speed can be decreased.

Applications of Universal Motor

 Vacuum cleaners, drink and food mixers, domestic sewing machine etc.

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  The higher rating universal motors are used in portable drills, blenders, railway systems
etc.
9. BLDC (BRUSHLESS DC) MOTOR
9.1 Introduction:
 Conventional dc motors are highly efficient and their characteristics make them suitable
for use of servomotors.
 However their only drawback is that they need a commutator and brushes which are
subject to wear and require maintenance.
 When the functions of commutator and brushes were implemented by solid state switches,
maintenance free motors were realized.
 These motors are known as brushless dc motors
9.2 Construction :
 The construction of modern brushless motor is very similar to the ac motor known as the
permanent magnet synchronous motor.
 The main parts of brushless dc motor are
• Stator
• Rotor
 Stator:
 Stator is made up of silicon steel stampings with slots in its inner periphery.
 The slots are accommodated either in closed or open distributed armature winding.
This winding is to be wound for a specified number of poles.

 The winding is connected to DC supply through power electronic switching

circuits.

 Rotor:

 Rotor is made up of permanent magnet. The number of poles of the rotor is same
as the number of poles of the stator.

 The rotor shaft carries a rotor position sensor.

 A position sensor provides information about the position of the shaft at any
instant for the controller which sends signals to the electronic commutator.

89
9.3 Principle of operation:

 The schematic diagram of the brushless dc motor is shown in the figure. It also shows the
three phases of the stator and rotor with d and q axes.

 The stator is connected to a variable voltage current source through an indicator and an
inverter comprising six SCRs (S1 to S6).

 Diodes are connected across SCRs to protect these from the voltage induced in the
armature coil undergoing commutation position sensors placed on the rotor.

 Which cause the SCRs to be fired in sequence so as to be in synchronism with the rotors
mechanical position.

Fig: Construction of Brushless DC Motor

 The armature winding of a stator draws the current from the inverter circuit. The current
distributions in the stator winding depend upon rotor position and the devices turn on.

 The m.m.f perpendicular to the permanent magnet flux is setup. Then the armature
conductor experiences a force. The reactive force develops a torque in the rotor.

 If the torque is more than the opposing fractional and load torque, the motor starts. It is
self-starting motor.

 As the motor picks up, then there exists a relative speed between permanent field and
armature conductors.

 As per faraday‘s law of electromagnetic induction, emf is induced in the conductors. This
emf oppose a cause, as a result, the developed torque is reduced.
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  Finally the rotor will attain a steady state when the developed torque is equal to the
opposing load torque. Thus the motor attains steady state condition.
Advantages:
 They require little or no maintenance.
 They have a much larger operating life.
 No field winding.
 Better ventilation.
 Regenerative braking is possible.
 High speed operation.
 No mechanical commutator.
Disadvantages:
 Require rotor position sensors.
 Motor field cannot be controlled.
 Require power semiconductor switching circuits.
Applications:
 Laser printer
 Hard disk drive
 Automotive applications.
 Robotics applications.
 Textile and glass industries.

91
 UNIT: III
Semiconductor Devices: PN junction diodes, Zener Diode, Voltage regulator, BJT & FET Transistors,
Timers, Operational Amplifiers.
Activities: Virtual demonstration of V-I characteristics of PN junction and Zener diodes using simulation,
inverting/non-inverting amplifiers, Solving GATE questions.

1. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

 The semiconductor materials such as Ge and Si have four electrons in their valence sheil that is
outer most shell. The fig. shows atomic structure of the semiconductor materials germanium and
silicon.

Fig: Atomic Structure of semiconducting materials

 The germanium has a nucleus with 32 protons. The electrons are distributed as 2 electrons in the
first orbit, 8 in the second orbit and 18 in the third orbit. The remaining four electrons are in the
outer orbit (or) valence orbit.

 The silicon has nucles with 14 proton. In this atomic structure of the silicon also 4 electrons
present in the outermost orbit (or) valence orbit.

1.1 Semiconductor

 A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between those of insulators and
good conductors. It is has 4 valance electrons.

Fig: Energy Band of Semiconductor devices

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 In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those materials, which at room
temperature have

(i) Partially-filled conduction band

(ii) Partially-filled valence band

(iii) A very narrow energy gap between then (order of 1.1 ev)

Examples: Germanium, silicon, Gallium arsenide etc.

 At 0°K, there are no electrons in the conduction band of semiconductors and their valence band is
completely filled.

 It means absolute zero temperature a piece of Ge (or) Si acts like a perfect insulators. The
resistivities of semiconductors is in the range of 10-3 to 10-6 Ω-m.

 Semiconductor compounds containing covalent bonds hence these compounds are called covalent
compounds.

1.1.1 Properties of semiconductors:

(i) It is rigid, directional and crystalline in nature

(ii) Conductivity can increased if proper doping material in added
(iii) Low melting and boiling temperature.

1.2 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors may be classified as

Fig: classification of semiconducting devices

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1.2.1 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

 The pure form of semiconductor material is known as intrinsic semiconductors, common

examples of such semiconductors are pure germanium and silicon which have forbidden
energy gaps of 0.72 ev and 1.1 ev respectively.

 The energy gap is so small that even at ordinary room temperature, there are many electrons
which possess sufficient energy to jump across the small energy gap form the valence to the
conduction band.

1.2.2 DOPING OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

 Doping is the process by which adding an impurity into a pure form of semiconductor
(intrinsic semiconductor) to improve its electrical characteristics (or) conductivity.

Process of doping:

(i) Melt the pure semiconductor crystal Si (or) Ge

(ii) Molten crystal in the liquid form and it breaks the covalent bonds
(iii\) To increase the number of electron, pentavalent atoms are added as impurity in the
molten silicon.
(iv) Impurity will donate an electorn to the silicon crystal, thus it is called as donor impurities.
(v) To increase the number of holes, trivalent atoms are added as impurity in the molten
silicon.
(vi) These impurity will accept an electron, hence these impurities are called as acceptor
impurities.

1.2.3 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

 In an intrinsic semiconductors at room temperature current conduction is very less. To increase

the conductivity of the semiconductor some suitable impurity (or) doping agent is added.

 The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is called as doping. This impure form of
semiconductor is called as extrinsic semiconductor. Generally for 106 to 1010 atom of
semiconductor material one impurity atom is added.

 The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of free electrons (or) holes in a
semiconductor.

94
 Generally, two types of impurity atoms are added to the semiconductor namely the impurity
atoms containing 5 valence electron (Pentavalent) and the impurity atoms containing 3 valence
electron (Trivalent).

 Depending upon the type of impurity atoms added to the semiconductor, the resulting
semiconductor may be of the following two types.

(i) N-type semiconductors

(ii) P-type semiconductors
 N-Type Semiconductors
 The semiconductors, which are obtained by introducing pentavalent impurity atoms are
known as N-type semiconductors.
 The pentavalent impurity is an element from group V of the periodic table. The
elements in this group contain 5 valence electrons.
 The typical examples of such elements are phosphorus (P), antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As)
and bismuth (Bi). These elements donate excess electron carriers.
 P-Type Semiconductors
 The semiconductors, which are obtained by adding a trivalent impurity atoms are known
as P-type semiconductors.
 The trivalent impurity is an element group of III of the periodic table. The elements in
this group contain 3 valence electrons.
 Examples of such elements are Gallium (Ga), Indium (In), Aluminium (Al), Boron (B)
etc.
 These elements make available positive charge carriers because they create holes, which
can accept electrons.
 Therefore, such elements are known as acceptor (or) P-type impurities.
MAJORITY AND MINORITY CHARGE CARRIERS
 The electron-hole pairs are called thermally generated charge carriers. The number of
these charge carriers is usually very small. However an extrinsic semiconductor has a
larger number of charge carriers.
 For instance an N-type semiconductor a large number of electrons. Besides this, N-type
semiconductor also contains fewer number of thermally generated holes.

95
  Since the number of electrons, are much larger than the number of holes in a N-type
semiconductor, therefore electrons are called majority carriers and holes a minority
carriers.

Fig: charge carriers

2. PN JUNCTION DIODES:

 PN junction diode is formed when N- type and P -type semiconductors are joined together.

Fig: symbol of PN junction Diode

 In N-type material, electrons are the majority carriers holes are the minority carriers, In P-type
semiconductors holes are the majority careers and electrons of the minority careers.

 Immobilized positive charge on N- side and negative charge on P- side of the junction this
region is known as depletion region.

BIASING OPERATION:

 Biasing means applied external voltage of a circuit or devices. In PN junction diode has two
modes of biasing operation

1. Forward bias

2. Reverse bias
1. FORWARD BIASED PN JUNCTION

 We connect voltage source to the PN junction, such that the positive terminal is connected to the
P-region and negative terminal to the N-region, the PN junction is said to be forward biased.

96
 Fig: Forward Biased PN junction Diode

 The holes are repelled by the positive terminal of the voltage source and are forced to move
towards the junction.

 Similarly, the electrons are repelled by the negative terminal of the voltage source and move
towards the junction.

 Because of their acquired energy, some of the holes and electrons enter the depletion layer and
recombine themselves. This reduces the width as well as height of the potential barriers (VB)
as shown in figure (b).

 In other wards, the width of depletion layer and the barrier potential reduces with the forward
bias.

 As a result of this, more majority carriers diffuse across the junction. Therefore is causes a
large current to flow through the PN junction.

[Link] BIASED PN JUNCTION

 We connect the voltage source to a PN junction, such that positive terminal of the voltage
source is connected to the N-region and negative to the P-region, the PN junction is said to
be reverse biased. Figure shows a reverse biased PN junction.

Fig: Reverse Biased PN junction Diode

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  When a PN junction is reverse biased, as shown in Figure (a) the holes in the P-region are
attracted towards the negative terminal of the voltage source.

 And the electrons in the N-region are attracted to the positive terminal of the voltage source.
Thus the majority carriers are drawn away from the junction.

 This widens the depletion layer and increases the barrier potential as shown in Figure (b).

 The increased barrier potential makes it very difficult for the majority carriers to diffuse
across the junction. Thus there is no current due to majority carriers in a reverse biased PN
junction. I

 n other words, the junction offers very high resistance under reverse biased condition.
However, the barrier potential helps the minority carriers in crossing the junction. Hence a
small amount of current does flow through the reverse biased PN junction.

 The amount of this current depends upon the number of minority carriers diffusing across the
junction. The current is known as reverse saturation current
Characteristic of a PN Junction

Fig: VI Characteristics of a PN junction diode

 It is very important to known now a device responds (or behaves). When it is connected in
an electrical circuit. This information is obtained an electrical of a graph known as its volt-
ampere or V-I characteristics.

 The forward characteristics of a diode. In this circuit, the diode is connected to DC through
a potentiometer (P) and a resistance (R).

 The potentiometer helps in varying the voltage applied across the diode. The resistance (R) is
included in the circuit, so as to limit the current through the diode.

98
  The circuit arrangement for obtaining the reverse characteristics of a diode here change
made the diode terminal interchange.

 It may be noted that negative terminal of the voltage source is connected to the anode of a
diode and positive terminal to the cathode. Hence, the diode is reverse biased.
Applications of PN Junction Diode
(i) As rectifiers (or) power diodes in DC power supply
(ii) As signal diodes in communication circuit
(iii) As zener diode in voltage stabilizing circuit
(iv) As varactor diode in radio and TV receivers
(v) As a switch in logic circuits used in computers.
3. ZENER DIODE

 A zener diode is also called a voltage reference, voltage regulator (or) break down diode.

Fig: Symbol of Zener Diode

 The zener diode is a silicon PN junction device which differs from a rectifier diode, in the
sense, that it is operated in the reverse break down region.

 The break down voltage of a zener-diode is set by controlling the doping level. The reverse
break down of a PN junction may occur either due to avalanche (or) zener effect.

 At reverse voltage less than 6 volts, zener effect predominates, whereas above 6 volts
avalanche effect is predominant.

 Zener break down occurs due to breaking of covalent bonds by the strong electric field set up
in the depletion region by the reverse voltage.

 It produces an extremely large number of electrons and holes which constitute the reverse
saturation current. Whose value is limited only by the external resistance in the circuit.

99
  Avalanche break-down occurs at higher reverse voltages when thermally- generated
electrons acquire sufficient energy to produce more carriers by collision.
Breakdown Effects
There are two main breakdown effects:
1. Avalanche Breakdown

 In PN junction diodes, under reverse bias, avalanche breakdown occurs. This leads to
the breakdown of the junction, resulting in a large reverse current. Here, a large
number of free electrons are generated. This causes the reverse current to increase
rapidly.
2. Zener Breakdown

 In Zener breakdown, a strong electric field is developed across the depletion layer.
The electric field becomes sufficiently strong to break covalent bonds. As a result,
electron–hole pairs are generated.
Zener voltage:

 Zener diode are available having zener voltages of 2.4 volts to 200 volts.
Zener Biasing:

 For proper working of a zener diode in any circuit, it essential that it must be reverse biased
and have voltage across it greater than Vz.
VI characteristics:

 When Zener diode is forward biased, the Zener diode operation is similar to that of ordinary
PN diode. Zener diode is specially designed to operate in the reverse / bias condition.

Fig: VI Characteristics of zener diode

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  When the reverse voltage is less than the reverse breakdown voltage, the diode carries
reverse saturation current.

 When the reverse voltage is greater than the reverse breakdown voltage, the current through
the diode increases rapidly and the voltage across the diode remains constant. Usually Zener
diode is operated in this reverse breakdown region.

 Due to this property, Zener diode is used for providing constant voltage source in voltage
regulators.

Application of zener diode:

(i) Voltage regulator

(ii) Used as peak clippers

(iii) For meter protection against damage from accidental application of excessive voltage.

4. VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

 A Voltage Regulator is an electronic device that maintains a constant output voltage

despite variations in input voltage, load current, or temperature.
Need for Voltage Regulator
 Protects electronic components
 Ensures proper operation of circuits
 Improves reliability and life of equipment
Block Diagram

AC supply Rectifiers Voltage DC output

Filters
Regulators

 Rectifier converts AC to pulsating DC

 Filter removes ripples
 Voltage Regulator provides constant DC output

Types of Voltage Regulators

1. Linear Voltage Regulator
 Works by dissipating excess voltage as heat
 Simple and low noise
101
 Fig: Linear voltage Regulator
Types
 Series Regulator
 Shunt Regulator
Example: 7805, 7812 ICs
Series Voltage Regulator
 A variable element is used as a series connection between the load and the voltage
regulator.
 The voltage dropped across the series element can be altered by adjusting its resistance.
Additionally, the voltage across the load does not change.
Shunt Voltage Regulator
 A Regulating element is used as a parallel connection between the load and the voltage
regulator.
 Used for low-power applications
2. Switching Voltage Regulator
 Uses switching action (ON/OFF)
 High efficiency and less heat loss

Fig: Switching Voltage Regulator

102
Types
 Buck (Step-down)
 Boost (Step-up)
 Buck–Boost

IC Voltage Regulator – 7805

PIN DIAGRAM

Fig: PIN Diagram of 7805 voltage regulator

Features
 Fixed output voltage: +5V
 Input range: 7V – 35V
 Built-in current limiting and thermal protection

Function:

In this pin of the IC positive

Input voltage (7V-
1 INPUT unregulated voltage is given in the
35V)
regulation.
In this pin where the ground is
2 GROUND Ground (0V) given. This pin is neutral for
equally the input and output.
The output of the regulated 5V is
Regulated output; 5V
3 OUTPUT taken out at this pin of the IC
(4.8V-5.2V)
regulator.

Advantages
 Stable output voltage
 Simple and reliable

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  Easy to use
Disadvantages
 Linear regulators have low efficiency
 Heat dissipation required

5. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

5.1 Introduction
 The BJT is a main building block of all modern electronic systems.
 It consists if two back to back P-N junctions manufactured in a single piece of a
semiconductor crystal.
 It has three-terminal.
 The BJT is used as a high speed electronic switch that is capable of switching between two
operating states at a rate of several billions of times per second.
 There are two types of transistors: Bipolar junction transistor and unipolar junction transistor.
 In the BJT current conduction is because of both the types of charge carriers, holes and
electrons. Hence this is called as Bipolar junction transistor (BJT). In unipolar transistor the
current conduction is only due to majority carriers.
 The Bipolar junction transistors are two types. They are
(i) NPN transistor
(ii) PNP transistor.

Fig: Types of Transistor

5.2 CONSTRUCTION OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
 A Bipolar junction transistor has three regions known as emitter, base and collector.
All these three regions are provided with terminals, which are labeled as E(emitter), B
(Base) and C (collector) respectively.

104
 Fig: construction of BJT
Emitter:
 It is a region situated in one side of transistor, which supplies charge carries to the other
two regions. The emitter is a heavily doped region.
Base:
 It is the middle region that forms two PN junctions in the transistor. The base of
transistor is thin as compared to the emitter and is a lightly doped region.
Collector:
 It is a region situated in the other side of transistor, which collects charge carriers.
 The collector of a transistor is always larger than the emitter and base. The doping level
of the collector is intermediate between the heavy doping emitter and the light doping of
the base.
The transistor has two P-N junction one junction is between the emitter and the base, it is
called as Emitter-Base junction (or) emitter junction (JE). The other junction is between the
base and collector, it is called as collector-base junction (or) collector junction (JC).
5.3 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR BIASING
 The application of a DC voltages, across the transistor terminals is called as biasing.
Each junction of a transistor may be forward biased (or) reverse-biased independently.
 They are three different ways of biasing a transistor, which are also called as modes of
transistor operation.
Active:
 In this mode, the emitter-base junction of a transistor is forward biased and the collector-
base junction is reverse biased as shown in fig.

Fig: Active Mode

 In a forward biased active, the negative terminal of a battery is connected to N side and
positive terminal to P side.

105
  The reverse biasing requires all the connections to be opposite to those for forward
biasing.
Saturation:
 In this mode, both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions of a transistors are
forward-biased as shown its fig. the transistor has a very large value of current. The
transistor is operated in this mode, act as closed switch.

Fig: Saturation Mode

Cut-off:
 In this mode, both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions of a transistor are
reverse biased as shown in fig. In this mode, the transistor has practically zero current.
The transistor is operated in this mode, act as an open switch.

Fig: Cutt Off Mode

5.4 OPERATION OF BJT:

a) PNP Transistor:

106
  The emitter–base junction is forward biased and collector–base junction is reverse
biased.
 The holes in the emitter are repelled by the positive terminal of battery.
 Then the potential barrier at emitter–base junction is reduced. As a result of this,
depletion region disappears.
 Hence holes cross the junction and enter into N-region (base).
 Because the base region is thin and lightly doped, majority of holes (97.5%) are able to
drift across the base without electrons to combine with. Only 2.5% of the holes
recombine with the free electrons in N-region.
 The base current IB which is very small. The holes which after crossing the N-P collector
junction enter the collector region.
IC = IE – IB
IE = IB + IC
b)NPN Transistor:

 The emitter–base junction is forward biased.

107
  The collector–base junction is reverse biased.

 The electrons in the emitter region are repelled by the negative battery terminal
towards the emitter junction.

 The electrons cross over into the P-type base region because the potential barrier is
reduced due to forward bias, and the base region is very thin and highly doped.

 Most of the electrons (about 97.5%) cross over to the collector junction and enter the
collector region.

 Only 2.5% of the emitter electrons combine with the holes in the base and are lost as
charge carriers.

5.5 TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION

There are 3 configurations:
 Common-Base configuration
 Common-Emitter configuration
 Common-Collector configuration
1. Common-Base Configuration
 In this configuration, base terminal acts as a common terminal for input and output.
 Here, input is applied between emitter and base, while output is taken from collector and
base.
 Here, base acts as a common terminal to both input and output.

Fig: Input and output characteristics

108
 Where

IE → Emitter current

VEB→ Input voltage

VCB→ Output voltage

Input Characteristics:

 To determine the input characteristics, initially the output voltage VCB is set as zero. Then
the input voltage VEB is increased.

 The input characteristics are drawn between emitter current (IE) and emitter–base voltage
VEB is increased.

 The input characteristics are drawn between emitter current IE and emitter–base voltage
VEB.

 The emitter current (IE) is taken along the Y-axis and VEB along the X-axis.

 From the above graph, the emitter current (IE) increases rapidly with a small increase in
emitter–base voltage.

 This input characteristic is used to find the input resistance of the transistor.

 Input Resistance (Rin) = at constant VCB

Where:

𝑉 → Change in emitter–base junction voltage

𝐼 → Change in emitter current Output Characteristics

109
 Output characteristics:

Fig: output characteristics

 To determine the output characteristics, the emitter current IE is kept constant at a suitable
value by adjusting the emitter–base voltage VEB and varying R2. The output current (IC) is
measured.

Output Resistance Rout =

To find amplification factor

 Saturation Region

 In this region, collector–base voltage VCB is negative.

 The collector–base junction is also forward biased and a small change in VCB results
in a large variation in collector current.

 Active Region

 In this region, the collector current is almost constant and is equal to the emitter
current.

 The emitter–base junction is forward biased and the collector–base junction is reverse
biased.

 Cut-off Region

 In this region, both junctions are reverse biased. Due to this, there is no current flow
in the collector terminal due to majority carriers.
110
  Due to minority carriers, a small current will flow. This current is known as reverse
saturation current.

2. Common Emitter Configuration

 In this configuration, input is applied between base and emitter and output is taken from
the collector and emitter.

 The emitter terminal is common to both input and output; hence it is called common-
emitter configuration.

Input Characteristics

 At constant, VCE the input current IB varies with the variation of VBE.

 If the input voltage (VBE) is less than the threshold (or) knee voltage, the base current is
very small.

 The value of knee voltage is 0.3 V for germanium and 0.7 V for silicon transistor.

 Compared to CB configuration increases IB less rapidly with VBE.

Input Resistance Rin = at constant VCE

111
 Fig: Input Characteristics
Output Characteristics:

 It is a curve between collector current and collector–emitter voltage at constant base

current (IB).

Fig: output Characteristics

 From the graph, as VCE increases from zero to one volt, the collector current IC rapidly
increases. This region is called the saturation region.

 When IB=0 a small amount of collector current flows. It is called reverse saturation current
(ICEO).

 When the main collector current is zero, the transistor is said to be in the cut-off region.

 If VCE is increased, the depletion region in the collector–base junction increases. This
increases IC and the transistor operates in the active region.

Current Gain β =

Output Resistance Rout = at constant IB

112
3. common collector configuration
 In common collector configuration, input is applied between Base and Collector and output
is taken from Emitter and Collector.
 Collector terminal is common to both input and output.

Input and output characteristics:

 In input Characteristics, The base current IB is kept constant. By adjusting the base
collector voltage VBC measured IB and the output current IE is measured.
 Output Characteristics, This IC is approximately equal to IE characteristics. It is identical to
CE configuration.

Output Resistance Rout = at constant IB

 This characteristic may be used to find current amplification factor

γ= at constant VCE.

6. FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET):

 FET is a device in which the flow of current is controlled through electric field hence the
name is called as Field Effect Transistor (FET).
 Majority current carriers therefore FET is said to be unipolar device whereas BJT is bipolar.
 FET is classified into two constructions:
i) Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

113
 ii) Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET).
(i) Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

 Depending on the majority carriers, JFET is classified into two types:

(i) N-channel JFET
(ii) P-channel JFET

 JFET is a three-terminal device. The terminals are: Source (S), Drain (D), Gate (G)

 Source (S):
Through which the majority carriers enter into the N-channel bar.

 Drain (D):
Through which the majority carriers leave from the N-channel bar.

 Gate (G):
Heavily doped P-type silicon is diffused on both sides of the N-type bar.
Types of JFET

Operation
(i) When VGS=0 and VDS=0

 When no voltage is applied between drain and source and gate to source, the thickness
of the depletion region is uniform.

114
 Fig: operation of JFET
(ii) When VDS=0V and VGS is decreased from zero

 In this case, the PN junctions are reverse biased. Hence, the thickness of the depletion
region is increased.

 As VGS is further decreased from zero, the reverse-biased voltage increases.

 The VGS value at which the drain current ID is cut off in a JFET is called the cut-off
voltage.
(iii) When VGS=0 and VDS is increased from 0

 The drain is positive with respect to the source, with VGS=0V

 At a certain value of VDS, the cross-sectional area (channel path) of the JFET becomes
minimum.

 At this voltage, the channel is said to be pinched off, and the voltage VP is called the
pinch-off voltage.
Characteristics of JFET

115
 Two Main Characteristics
→ Drain characteristics
→ Transfer characteristics

(i) Drain Characteristics

 As in the graph, VDS is increased from zero, the drain current ID increases along VP, and
the rate of increase of ID with VDS decreases.

 The region from VDS=0V to VDS=VP is called the ohmic region.

 When VDS=VP, the drain current ID becomes maximum.

 When VDS is increased beyond VP, the length of the pinch-off region increases.

 The avalanche multiplication of electrons caused by the breaking of covalent bonds

leads to an drain voltage at which the breakdown occurs.
(ii) Transfer Characteristics

 In transfer characteristics, VDS is kept constant at a suitable value greater than the
pinch-off voltage (VP).

116
  The gate voltage VGS is decreased from zero until the drain current ID is reduced to
zero.

 The transfer characteristics showing the variation of VGS with respect to ID is shown
in the graph.
Applications

 Used as an electronic switch

 Used as an amplifier

 Used as a chopper

 Used as a buffer

 Used in digital circuits

ii) Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

 MOSFETs are electronic devices used to switch or amplify voltage in circuits.

 It is a current-controlled device.

 It has four terminals:

(i) Source
(ii) Gate
(iii) Drain
(iv) Body
Types
(i) Enhancement MOSFET
(ii) Depletion MOSFET
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 (i) Enhancement MOSFET

 The construction of an N-channel Enhancement MOSFET is shown in the figure.

 As there is no channel in an E-MOSFET, the symbol is represented by a broken line.

 Two heavily doped n⁺ regions are diffused in a lightly doped P-type silicon substrate. One
n⁺ region is called the Source (S) and the other is called the Drain (D).

 A thin insulating layer of SiO₂ is grown over the surface of the structure and holes are cut
into the oxide layer.

 Then a thin layer of metal (aluminium) is formed over the SiO₂ layer. This metal layer
covers the entire channel region and forms the Gate (G).

Operation

 The substrate and source are grounded, and a positive voltage is applied at the gate.

 The positive charge on the gate induces an equal negative charge on the substrate side
between the source and drain regions.

 As the positive voltage on the gate increases, the induced negative charge on the
semiconductor increases.

118
 Fig: operation of MOSFET

 Hence, the conductivity increases and current flows from source to drain through the induced
channel.
Characteristics
Drain Characteristics and Transfer Characteristics

ii) Depletion MOSFET

N-channel depletion MOSFET is shown in fig.

 N-channel is diffused between source & drain host the basic

structure of depletion MOSFET.

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 Operation:

 when vgs=0: The drain to reduced Since reduced So the current of low is N-Channel width is
reduced

 when Vgs = Vgs (OFF) Between Savice to drain the N-Channel width becomes zero. So no ID
flows.

 when Vgs = +1,+2,+3….(V) .This induces width between N-Channel Source to drain so the
current flows through N-Channel is also more This is Called Enchancement mode.

Drain, transfer characteristics:

Application:

 Used as Radio Frequency Amplifier

 Used as Passive elements.

 Used as Power Regulator

 Used as High Speed Switch.

7. TIMERS

120
 Timing circuits are used in a wide variety of applications from short time delays of a few
nanoseconds used in digital circuitry and computers to long periods of hours used to control
household appliances and industrial processes.
 A timer is a control device that outputs a signal at a preset time after an input signal is
received. The operating mode determines the output method i.e used when the set time has
reached. 'On' and 'Off' delay operating modes are the most commonly used. Other types
include interval-on-operate, flasher and repeat cycle timers.
 On-delay timers start timing when the input voltage (power) is applied. The output is
energized at the end of the delay. Input voltage has to be removed to de-energize the output
and reset the time delay relay.
 Off-delay timers are ready to accept the trigger when the input voltage is applied. An output is
energized by applying the trigger, which must be removed for the time delay to start. An
output is de-energized at the end of the time delay period. If the trigger is applied during the
delay.
 When an input voltage is applied to a flasher, the contacts energize and de-energize after one
another. The on-cycle and off-cycle times are of the same length.
 Repeat cycle timers have two controls so that cycles are independently adjustable. These
cycles will continually repeat as long as the voltage is applied to the time delay relay. Some
repeat cycle timers start the Off-timer first while others begin with the On-timer. For example,
they may be used in conjunction with one another to make lamps flash on and off.
 The 555 Timer IC can be configured as timer with timing interval ranging from a few
microseconds to many hours by wiring it with resistors and capacitors externally in various
ways.
555 timer IC
 555 timer IC is a highly stable integrated circuit. It can function as an accurate time delay
generator and free running multivibrator as well.
 When it is used as an oscillator, its frequency and duty cycle can be accurately adjusted with
the help of external components like resistors and capacitors.
 The IC also has the facility to trigger and reset on the falling edges of waveforms. Its salient
features are as follows :-
1. It can provide timing from microseconds to hours.
2. It can work on wide range of supply voltages from 3 V to 18 V DC.
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 3. Its output is compatible with CMOS, DTL and TTL logics.
4. It can provide high current sink or source output of 200mA.
5. It has a separate trigger and reset input terminals.
6. Its output can be operated as normal ON and normal OFF conditions.
7. It has high temperature stability.
Pin Configuration of 555 Timer IC
The pin configuration of 555 Timer IC has been shown in fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Pin Configuration of 555 Timer IC

FUNCTION:
1. Pin 1- It is the ground pin of the IC.
2. Pin 2- It triggers i.e. starts the timing cycle of the IC. When it receives 1/3 rd of battery voltage
for a short time, it triggers the IC. When IC is triggered, its output becomes HIGH and Pin 7
becomes OFF.
3. Pin 3- This is the output pin of the IC. It can SINK or SOURCE a maximum current of
200mA.
4. Pin 4- It resets the timing cycle of the IC. This pin must be connected to positive terminal of
battery.

122
5. Pin 5- This pin is called control voltage pin. We can apply variable voltage like triangular
wave to this pin to modulate the output waveform of the IC. This pin is useful in some
applications of modulation.
6. Pin 6- It is the threshold pin. When it receives 2/3rd of battery voltage, it stops the timing cycle
of the IC. When the timing cycle stops, the output of the IC becomes LOW and Pin 7 turns
ON.
7. Pin 7- It is the discharge pin. It discharges external capacitor (known as timing capacitor) into
it.
8. Pin 8- It is the positive supply pin. The supply voltage range of the IC is 3 V to 18 V DC.
Working
 The circuit diagram of On-delay timer using astable mode of 555 Timer IC is shown in fig.
Once power is applied to the circuit, it doesn't turn on the output right away.
 There is a delay of few seconds before the output turns on. We achieve the delay effect
through the use of a capacitor.
 The capacitor takes time to charge up. This time is what creates the delay.
 The circuit works through the RC network. The combination of the resistor and capacitor
forms the RC network.
 This network determines the length of time it takes to charge the capacitor.
 The reason why the circuit doesn't turn on automatically is because of pin 2, the trigger pin,
initially when the power turns on, is HIGH.

123
 Fig. Circuit diagram of delay before turn on circuit
 Initially when the power turns On. Pin 2 is HIGH. This is because the capacitor hasn't charged
up yet. Until the capacitor charges up, this pin is HIGH.
 Since the trigger pin is active LOW, the output will be off until this pin goes LOW. As the
capacitor charges up and gets near the supply voltage it is connected to pin 2, the voltage at
pin 2 decreases.
 When the voltage at pin 2 gets below 1/3rd of the supply voltage, the pin is now LOW. When it
is LOW, this is when the output goes HIGH and the LED turns on.
 The time delay period in which the output is HIGH is given as 2(0.693) RC in seconds, where
R is in Ohms and C is in Farads.
 Time period (T) = 2(0.693) R × C
R= 47 KΩ
C = 100 Μf
Therefore, T= 2×0.693×47×103×100×10-6 sec
T= 6.5 Sec
 Hence, there is a delay of about 6.5 seconds with this circuit. Once we turn the power on, the
LED doesn't turn on until about 6.5 seconds.

124
 Advantages of Timer
1. Accurate Time Delay
2. Automatic Operation.
3. Simple Circuit Design
4. Wide Range of Applications.
5. Low Cost
6. Versatile Modes
Disadvantages of Timer
1. Limited Accuracy (Analog Timers)
2. Temperature Sensitivity
3. Limited Output Current
4. Noise Sensitivity
5. Not Suitable for Very Long Delays
8. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
 An operational amplifier (op amp) is an analog circuit block that takes a differential voltage
input and produces a single-ended voltage output.
 Op amps usually have three terminals: two high-impedance inputs and a low-impedance
output port.
 The inverting input is denoted with a minus (-) sign, and the non-inverting input uses a
positive (+) sign. Operational amplifiers work to amplify the voltage differential between the
inputs, which is useful for a variety of analog functions including signal chain, power, and
control applications.
Operational Amplifier Classifications
There are four ways to classify operational amplifiers:
 Voltage amplifiers take voltage in and produce a voltage at the output.
 Current amplifiers receive a current input and produce a current output.
 Transconductance amplifiers convert a voltage input to a current output.
 Transresistance amplifiers convert a current input and produces a voltage output.
 There are many different important characteristics and parameters related to op amps (see
Figure 1). These characteristics are described in greater detail below.

125
 Fig 1: Operational Amplifier Schematic
Open-loop gain
 Open-loop gain: The open-loop gain (―A‖ in Figure 1) of an operational amplifier is the
measure of the gain achieved when there is no feedback implemented in the circuit.
 This means the feedback path, or loop, is open. An open-loop gain often must be exceedingly
large (10,000+) to be useful in itself, except with voltage comparators.
Input impedance
 Another important characteristic of op amps is that they generally have high input impedance
(―ZIN‖ in Figure 1).
 Input impedance is measured between the negative and positive input terminals, and its ideal
value is infinity, which minimizes loading of the source.
Output impedance
 An operational amplifier ideally has zero output impedance (―ZOUT‖ in Figure 1). However,
the output impedance typically has a small value, which determines the amount of current it
can drive, and how well it can operate as a voltage buffer.
Frequency response and bandwidth (BW)
 An ideal op amp would have an infinite bandwidth (BW), and would be able to maintain a
high gain regardless of signal frequency. However, all operational amplifiers have a finite
bandwidth, generally called the ―-3dB point,‖ where the gain begins to roll as frequency
increases.

126
 Fig 2: Operational Amplifier Open-Loop Frequency Response Curve
Negative Feedback and Closed-Loop Gain

 In an operational amplifier, negative feedback is implemented by feeding a portion of the

output signal through an external feedback resistor and back to the inverting input (see Figure
3).

Fig 3: Negative Feedback with Inverting Operational Amplifier

 Negative feedback is used to stabilize the gain. By using a negative feedback, the closed-loop
gain can be determined via external feedback components that can have higher accuracy
compared to the operational amplifier‘s internal components. This is because the internal op
amp components may vary substantially due to process shifts, temperature changes, voltage
changes, and other factors. The closed-loop gain can be calculated with Equation (1):

127
Operational Amplifier Configuration Topologies
 There are several different op amp circuits, each differing in function. The most common
topologies are described below.
Voltage follower
 The most basic operational amplifier circuit is a voltage follower (see Figure 4). This
circuit does not generally require external components, and provides high input impedance
and low output impedance, which makes it a useful buffer.
 Because the voltage input and output are equal, changes to the input produce equivalent
changes to the output voltage.

Figure 4: Voltage Follower

 The most common op amp used in electronic devices are voltage amplifiers, which increase
the output voltage magnitude.
 Inverting and non-inverting configurations are the two most common amplifier
configurations. Both of these topologies are closed-loop (meaning that there is feedback
from the output back to the input terminals), and thus voltage gain is set by a ratio of the
two resistors.
Inverting operational amplifier
 In inverting operational amplifiers, the op amp forces the negative terminal to equal the
positive terminal, which is commonly ground.
 Therefore, the input current is determined by the VIN / R1 ratio (see Figure 5).

128
 Figure 5: Inverting Operational Amplifier
 In this configuration, the same current flows through R2 to the output. Ideally, current does
not flow into the operational amplifier‘s negative terminal due to its high ZIN.
 The current flowing from the negative terminal through R2 creates an inverted voltage
polarity with respect to VIN. VOUT can be calculated with Equation (3):

Non-inverting operational amplifier

 In a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the input signal from the source is connected to the
non-inverting (+) terminal (see Figure 6).
 The operational amplifier forces the inverting (-) terminal voltage to equal the input
voltage, which creates a current flow through the feedback resistors.
 The output voltage is always in phase with the input voltage, which is why this topology is
known as non-inverting.

Figure 6: Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier

129
 Note that with a non-inverting amplifier, the voltage gain is always greater than 1, which is
not always the case with the inverting configurations. VOUT can be calculated
with Equation (4):

Voltage comparator
 An operational amplifier voltage comparator compares voltage inputs, and drives the output
to the supply rail of whichever input is higher.
 This configuration is considered open-loop operation because there is no feedback. Voltage
comparators have the benefit of operating much faster than the closed-loop topologies
discussed above (see Figure 7).

Figure 7: Voltage Comparator

Advantages of Op-Amp
1. Very High Voltage Gain
2. High Input Impedance
3. Low Output Impedance
4. Wide Range of Applications
5. Good Linearity
6. Ease of Circuit Design
Disadvantages of Op-Amp
1. Limited Bandwidth 2. Input Offset Voltage
3. Noise Sensitivity 4. Limited Output Voltage Swing
1. 5. Requires Dual Power Supply 6. Slew Rate Limitation
130
 UNIT: IV
Digital Electronics: Boolean algebra, Basic and Universal Gates, adders, multiplexers,
demultiplexers and flip-flops.
Activity: Online logic gate simulators, Solving GATE questions.
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
1. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Fundamental postulates of Boolean algebra:
i) Closure:
 A set S is closed w.r.t. a binary operator, if for every pair of elements of S, the binary
operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique element of S.
 The result of each operation with operator (+) or (.) is either 1 or 0 and 1, 0 ЄB.
ii) Identity element:
 A set S is said to have an identity element w.r.t a binary operation * on S, if there exists an
element e Є S with the property,

e* x = x * e = x
 Eg: 0+ 0 = 0 0+1=1+0=1 a) 1.1=1 x+ 0= x
1.0=0.1=1 x. 1 =x
iii)Commutative law:
 A binary operator * on a set S is said to be commutative if, for all x, y Є S
x*y=y*x
 Eg: 0+ 1 = 1+ 0 = 1 x+ y= y+ x
iv) Distributive law:
 If * and • are two binary operation on a set S, • is said to be distributive over + whenever,

x . (y+ z) = (x. y) + (x. z)

 Similarly, + is said to be distributive over • whenever,

x + (y. z) = (x+ y). (x+ z)

v) Inverse:
 A set S having the identity element e, w.r.t. binary operator * is said to have an inverse,
whenever for every x Є S, there exists an element x‘ Є S such that,

x. x’ Є e
131
 a) x+ x’ = 1, since 0 + 0’ = 0+ 1 and 1+ 1’ = 1+ 0 = 1
b) x. x’ = 1, since 0 . 0’ = 0. 1 and 1. 1’ = 1. 0 = 0
Properties of Boolean algebra:
1. Commutative property:
Boolean addition is commutative, given by

x+ y = y+ x

Boolean algebra is also commutative over multiplication given by,

x. y = y. x

2. Associative property:
The associative property of addition is given by,

A+ (B+ C) = (A+B) + C

The associative law of multiplication is given by,

A. (B. C) = (A.B) . C

3. Distributive property:

A+ BC = (A+B) (A+C)
The Boolean addition is distributive over Boolean multiplication, given by
The Boolean addition is distributive over Boolean addition, given by
A. (B+C) = (A.B)+ (A.C)

Theorems of Boolean algebr

THEOREMS (a) (b)

x+x=x x.x=x
1 Idempotent
x+1=1 x.0=0
2 Involution (x’)’ = x
3 x+ xy = x x (x+ y) = x
Absorption
x+ x’y = x+ y x. (x’+ y)= xy
4 Associative x+(y+132
z)= (x+ y)+ z x (yz) = (xy) z
5 DeMorgan’s Theorem (x+ y)’= x’. y’ (x. y)’= x’+ y’
DeMorgan’s Theorems:
 Two theorems that are an important part of Boolean algebra were proposed by DeMorgan.
 The first theorem states that the complement of a product is equal to the sum of the
complements.

(AB)’ = A’+ B’

Fig: Demorgan’s first law verification table

 The second theorem states that the complement of a sum is equal to the product of the
complements.

(A+ B)’ = A’. B’

Fig: Demorgan’s second law verification table

133
 Consensus Theorem:
 In simplification of Boolean expression, an expression of the form AB+ A‘C+ BC, the term
BC is redundant and can be eliminated to form the equivalent expression AB+ A‘C. The
theorem used for this simplification is known as consensus theorem and is stated as,

AB+ A’C+ BC = AB+ A’C

 The dual form of consensus theorem is stated as,

(A+B) (A’+C) (B+C) = (A+B) (A’+C)

BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS:
Minimization of Boolean Expressions:

 The Boolean expressions can be simplified by applying properties, laws and

theorems of Boolean algebra.

Simplify the following Boolean functions to a minimum number of literals:

134
135
 COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION:
Find the complement of the following functions,

1. F= x’yz’+ x’y’z
F‘= (x‘yz‘+ x‘y‘z)‘
= (x‖+ y‘+ z‖) . (x‖+ y‖+z‘)
= (x+ y‘+ z). (x+ y+ z‘).

2. F= (xy + y’z + xz) x.

F‘ = [(xy + y‘z + xz) x]‘
= (xy + y‘z + xz)‘ + x‘
= [(xy)‘ . (y‘z)‘. (xz)‘] + x‘
= [(x‘+y‘). (y+z‘). (x‘+z‘)] + x‘
= [(x‘y+ x‘z‘+ 0+ y‘z‘) ( x‘+z‘)] + x‘
= x‘x‘y+ x‘x‘z‘+ x‘y‘z‘+ x‘yz‘+ x‘z‘z‘+ y‘z‘z‘+ x‘
= x‘y+ x‘z‘+ x‘y‘z‘+ x‘yz‘+ x‘z‘+ y‘z‘+ x‘ [x+ x = x], [x. x = x]
= x‘y+ x‘z‘+ x‘z‘ (y‘+ y) + y‘z‘+ x‘ [x+ x’= 1]
= x‘y+ x‘z‘+ x‘z‘ (1) + y‘z‘+ x‘
= x‘y+ x‘z‘+ y‘z‘+ x‘
= x‘y+ x‘+ x‘z‘+ y‘z‘
= x‘(y+1) + x‘z+ y‘z‘ [y+1= 1]
= x‘ (1+z) + y‘z‘
= x‘+ y‘z‘

3. f = wx’y + xy’+ wxz

f = (wx‘y + xy‘+ wxz)‘
= (wx‘y)‘ (xy‘)‘ (wxz)‘
= (w‘+x+ y‘) (x‘+ y) (w‘+ x‘+ z‘)
= (w‘x‘+ w‘y+ xx‘+ xy+ x‘y‘+ yy‘) (w‘+ x‘+ z‘)
= (w‘x‘+ w‘y+ xy+ x‘y‘) (w‘+ x‘+ z‘)
=w‘x‘.w‘+w‘y.w‘+xy.w‘+x‘y‘.w‘+w‘x‘.x‘+w‘y.x‘+xy.x
‘+ xy‘. x‘+ w‘x‘. z‘+ w‘y. z‘+ xy. z‘+ x‘y‘.z‘
= w‘x‘+ w‘y+ w‘xy+ w‘x‘y‘+ w‘x‘+ w‘x‘y+ 0 + x‘y‘+
w‘x‘z‘+ w‘yz‘+ xyz‘+ x‘y‘z‘
= w‘x‘+ w‘y+ w‘xy+ w‘x‘y‘+
w‘x‘y+x‘y‘+w‘x‘z‘+w‘yz‘+ xyz‘+ x‘y‘z‘
= w‘x‘( 1+ y‘+ y+ z‘)+ w‘y( 1+ x+ z‘)+ x‘y‘(1+ z‘)+xyz‘
= w‘x‘(1)+ w‘y(1)+ x‘y‘(1)+ xyz‘
= w‘x‘+ w‘y+ x‘y‘+ xyz‘

136
2. BASIC AND UNIVERSAL GATES
2.1 BASIC LOGIC GATES:
 Logic gates are electronic circuits that can be used to implement the most elementary logic
expressions, also known as Boolean expressions. The logic gate is the most basic building
block of combinational logic.
 There are three basic logic gates, namely the OR gate, the AND gate and the NOT gate. Other
logic gates that are derived from these basic gates are the NAND gate, the NOR gate, the
EXCLUSIVE- OR gate and the EXCLUSIVE-NOR gate.

GAT SYMBO OPERATI TRUTH

E L ON TABLE
NOT NOT gate (Invertion),
produces an inverted
(7404)
output pulse for given
input pulse.
AND gate performs
logical multiplication. The
AND
output is HIGH only
(7408)
when all the inputs are
HIGH. When any of the
OR gate performs logical
OR addition. It produces a
HIGH on the output
(7432)
when any of the inputs
are HIGH. The output is
It is a universal gate.
NAND When any of the inputs
(7400) are LOW, the output will
be HIGH. LOW output
It is a universal gate.
NOR LOW output occurs
(7402) when any of itsinput is
HIGH. When all its

EX- OR The output is HIGH only

(7486) when

EX- The output is HIGH only

NOR when even number of
inputs is HIGH.

137
UNIVERSAL GATES:

 The NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates, since any logic function can be
implemented using NAND or NOR gates
3. ADDERS
Half-Adder:
 A half-adder is a combinational circuit that can be used to add two binary bits. It has two
inputs that represent the two bits to be added and two outputs, with one producing the SUM
output and the other producing the CARRY.

Fig: Block schematic of half-adder

 The truth table of a half-adder, showing all possible input combinations and the
corresponding outputs are shown below.

Inputs Outputs
A b Carry Sum (S)
(C)
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
Truth table of half-adder

K-map simplification for carry and sum:

 The Boolean expressions for the SUM and CARRY outputs are given by the
equations,
138
 Sum, S = A’B+ AB’= AxorB
Carry, C =A.B
 The first one representing the SUM output is that of an EX-OR gate, the second one
representing the CARRY output is that of an AND gate.
The logic diagram of the half adder is,

fig: Logic Implementation of Half-adder

Full-Adder:

 A full adder is a combinational circuit that forms the arithmetic sum of three input bits.
It consists of 3 inputs and 2 outputs.

 Two of the input variables, represent the significant bits to be added. The third input
represents the carry from previous lower significant position.

 The block diagram of full adder is given by,

Block schematic of full-adder

 The full adder circuit overcomes the limitation of the half-adder, which can be used to
add two bits only. As there are three input variables, eight different input combinations
are possible. The truth table is shown below,

139
 Truth Table:

 To derive the simplified Boolean expression from the truth table, the Karnaugh
map method is adopted as,

 The Boolean expressions for the SUM and CARRY outputs are given by the
equations,
Sum, S = A’B’Cin+ A’BC’in + AB’C’in + ABCin

Carry, Cout = AB+ ACin + BCin .

 The logic diagram for the above functions is shown as,

fig: Implementation of full-adder in Sum of Products

140
 The logic diagram of the full adder can also be implemented with two half- adders
and one OR gate. The S output from the second half adder is the exclusive-OR of Cin and
the output of the first half-adder, giving
Sum = Cin xor(A xorB) [x y = x‗y+ xy‗]

= Cin xor(A‗B+AB‗)

= C‗in (A‗B+AB‗) + Cin (A‗B+AB‗)‗ [(x‗y+xy‗)‗= (xy+x‗y‗)]

= C‗in (A‗B+AB‗) + Cin (AB+A‗B‗)

= A‗BC‗in + AB‗C‗in + ABCin + A‗B‗Cin .

and the carry output is,

Carry, Cout = AB+ Cin

(A’B+AB’)

= AB+ A‗BCin+ AB‗Cin

= AB (Cin+1) + A‗BCin+ AB‗Cin [Cin+1= 1]
= ABCin+ AB+ A‗BCin+ AB‗Cin
= AB+ ACin (B+B‗) + A‗BCin
= AB+ ACin+ A‗BCin
= AB (Cin+1) + ACin+ A‗BCin [Cin+1= 1]
= ABCin+ AB+ ACin+ A‗BCin
= AB+ ACin+ BCin (A +A‗)
= AB+ ACin+ BCin.

Fig: Implementation of full adder with two half-adders and an OR gate

4. MULTIPLEXERS

 A multiplexer or MUX, is a combinational circuit with more than one input line, one output
line and more than one selection line.
2
 A multiplexer selects binary information present from one of many input lines, depending
upon the logic status of the selection inputs, and routes it to the output line.

 Normally, there are 2n input lines and n selection lines whose bit combinations determine
which input is selected. The multiplexer is often labeled as MUX in block diagrams.

 A multiplexer is also called a data selector, since it selects one of many inputs and steers the
binary information to the output line.

Fig: Block diagram of Multiplexer

2-to-1- line Multiplexer:

 The circuit has two data input lines, one output line and one selection line, S. When S= 0,
the upper AND gate is enabled and I0 has a path to the output.

 When S=1, the lower AND gate is enabled and I1 has a path to the output.

 The multiplexer acts like an electronic switch that selects one of the two sources.

Truth table:

Y
I0
I1

4-to-1-line Multiplexer:
 A 4-to-1-line multiplexer has four (2n) input lines, two (n) select lines and one output line.
 It is the multiplexer consisting of four input channels and information of one of the channels
can be selected and transmitted to an output line according to the select inputs combinations.

3
 Selection of one of the four input channel is possible by two selection inputs.
 Each of the four inputs I0 through I3, is applied to one input of AND gate. Selection lines S1
and S0 are decoded to select a particular AND gate.
 The outputs of the AND gate are applied to a single OR gate that provides the 1-line output.
Fig: 4-to-1-Line Multiplexer

Function table:

S1 S0 Y
0 0 I0
0 1 I1
1 0 I2
1 1 I3

 To demonstrate the circuit operation, consider the case when S1S0= 10. The AND
gate associated with input I2 has two of its inputs equal to 1 and the third input
connected to I2.
 The other three AND gates have atleast one input equal to 0, which makes their
outputs equal to 0. The OR output is now equal to the value of I2, providing a path
from the selected input to the output.
 The data output is equal to I0 only if S1= 0 and S0= 0; Y= I0S1‗S0‗. The data output
is equal to I1 only if S1= 0 and S0= 1; Y= I1S1‗S0. The data output is equal to I2 only
if S1= 1 and S0= 0; Y= I2S1S0‗. The data output is equal to I3 only if S1= 1 and S0=
1; Y= I3S1S0.
 When these terms are OR, the total expression for the data output is,

Y= I0S1’S0’+ I1S1’S0 +I2S1S0’+ I3S1S0.

4
  As in decoder, multiplexers may have an enable input to control the operation of the
unit. When the enable input is in the inactive state, the outputs are disabled, and when it
is in the active state, the circuit functions as a normal multiplexer.
Quadruple 2-to-1 Line Multiplexer:

 This circuit has four multiplexers, each capable of selecting one of two input lines. Output
Y0 can be selected to come from either A0 or B0. Similarly, output Y1 may have the value of
A1 or B1, and so on. Input selection line, S selects one of the lines in each of the four
multiplexers. The enable input E must be active for normal operation.

 Although the circuit contains four 2-to-1-Line multiplexers, it is viewed as a circuit that
selects one of two 4-bit sets of data lines. The unit is enabled when E= 0. Then if S= 0, the
four A inputs have a path to the four outputs. On the other hand, if S=1, the four B inputs
are applied to the outputs. The outputs have all 0‗s when E= 1, regardless of the value of S.
Application:

 The multiplexer is a very useful MSI function and has various ranges of applications in data
communication.

 Signal routing and data communication are the important applications of a multiplexer. It is
used for connecting two or more sources to guide to a single destination among computer
units

 It is useful for constructing a common bus system. One of the general properties of a
multiplexer is that Boolean functions can be implemented by this device.

5
5. DEMULTIPLEXERS

 Demultiplex means one into many. Demultiplexing is the process of taking information
from one input and transmitting the same over one of several outputs.

 A demultiplexer is a combinational logic circuit that receives information on a single

input and transmits the same information over one of several (2n) output lines.

fig: Block diagram of demultiplexer

 The block diagram of a demultiplexer which is opposite to a multiplexer in its operation

is shown above.

 The circuit has one input signal, ‗n‘ select signals and 2n output signals. The select
inputs determine to which output the data input will be connected.

 As the serial data is changed to parallel data, i.e., the input caused to appear on one of the
n output lines, the demultiplexer is also called a data distributer or a serial-to-parallel
converter.

1-to-4 Demultiplexer:

 A 1-to-4 demultiplexer has a single input, Din, four outputs (Y0 to Y3) and two select
inputs (S1 and S0).

Fig: Logic Symbol

6
 The input variable Din has a path to all four outputs, but the input information is
directed to only one of the output lines.

 The truth table of the 1-to-4 demultiplexer is shown below.

Enable S1 S0 Din Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3
0 x x x 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1

 From the truth table, it is clear that the data input, Din is connected to the output Y0, when
S1= 0 and S0= 0 and the data input is connected to output Y1 when S1= 0 and S0= 1.

 Similarly, the data input is connected to output Y2 and Y3 when S1= 1 and S0= 0 and
when S1= 1 and S0= 1, respectively. Also, from the truth table, the expression for outputs
can be written as follows,

Y0= S1’S0’Din Y1= S1’S0Din

Y2= S1S0’Din Y3= S1S0Di

 Now, using the above expressions, a 1-to-4 demultiplexer can be implemented using four
3-input AND gates and two NOT gates.

 Here, the input data line Din, is connected to all the AND gates. The two select lines S1,
S0 enable only one gate at a time and the data that appears on the input line passes
through the selected gate to the associated output line

7
 Fig: Logic diagram of 1-to-4 demultiplexer

1- to-8 Demultiplexer:

 A 1-to-8 demultiplexer has a single input, Din, eight outputs (Y0 to Y7) and three select
inputs (S2, S1 and S0). It distributes one input line to eight output lines based on the
select inputs. The truth table of 1-to-8 demultiplexer is shown below.

fig: Truth table of 1-to-8 demultiplexer

 From the above truth table, it is clear that the data input is connected with one of the eight
outputs based on the select inputs. Now from this truth table, the expression for eight
outputs can be written as follows:

8
 Y0= S2‘S1‘S0‘Din Y4= S2 S1‘S0‘Din

Y1= S2‘S1‘S0Din Y5= S2 S1‘S0Din

Y2= S2‘S1S0‘Din Y6= S2 S1S0‘Din

Y3= S2‘S1S0Din Y7= S2S1S0Din

 Now using the above expressions, the logic diagram of a 1-to-8 demultiplexer can be
drawn as shown below.

 Here, the single data line, Din is connected to all the eight AND gates, but only one of
the eight AND gates will be enabled by the select input lines.

 or example, if S2S1S0= 000, then only AND gate-0 will be enabled and thereby the data
input, Din will appear at Y0. Similarly, the different combinations of the select inputs, the
input Din will appear at the respective output.

Fig: Logic diagram of 1-to-8 demultiplexer

6. FLIP-FLOPS:

 Flip-Flops are synchronous bi-stable devices (has two outputs Q and Q‘). In this case, the
term synchronous means that the output changes state only at a specified point on the
triggering input called the clock (CLK), i.e., changes in the output occur in
synchronization with the clock.

9
  An edge-triggered Flip-Flop changes state either at the positive edge (rising edge) or at
the negative edge (falling edge) of the clock pulse and is sensitive to its inputs only at
this transition of the clock. The different types of edge-triggered Flip- Flops are—
 S-R Flip-Flop,

 J-K Flip-Flop,

 D Flip-Flop,

 T Flip-Flop.

a) S-R Flip-Flop

 The S and R inputs of the S-R Flip-Flop are called synchronous inputs because data on
these inputs are transferred to the Flip-Flop's output only on the triggering edge of the
clock pulse.

 The circuit is similar to SR latch except enable signal is replaced by clock pulse (CLK).
On the positive edge of the clock pulse, the circuit responds to the S and R inputs.

Fig: SR Flip-Flop

 When S is HIGH and R is LOW, the Q output goes HIGH on the triggering edge of the
clock pulse, and the Flip-Flop is SET.

 When S is LOW and R is HIGH, the Q output goes LOW on the triggering edge of the
clock pulse, and the Flip-Flop is RESET. When both S and R are LOW, the output does
not change from its prior state. An invalid condition exists when both S and R are HIGH.

10
 Fig: Input and output waveforms of SR Flip-Flop

b) J-K Flip-Flop:

 JK means Jack Kilby, Texas Instrument (TI) Engineer, who invented IC in 1958. JK Flip-
Flop has two inputs J(set) and K(reset).

Fig: JK Flip Flop

 A JK Flip-Flop can be obtained from the clocked SR Flip-Flop by augmenting two AND
gates as shown below.
11
  The data input J and the output Q‘ are applied the first AND gate and its output (JQ‘)
is applied to the S input of SR Flip-Flop. Similarly, the data input K and the output Q are
applied to the second AND gate and its output (KQ) is applied to the R input of SR Flip-
Flop.

Case i) J=K=0

 When J=K= 0, both AND gates are disabled. Therefore clock pulse have no effect,
hence the Flip-Flop output is same as the previous output.

Case ii) J=0,K=1

 When J= 0 and K= 1, AND gate 1 is disabled i.e., S= 0 and R= 1. This condition will
reset the Flip-Flop to 0.
Case iii) J=1,K=0

 When J= 1 and K= 0, AND gate 2 is disabled i.e., S= 1 and R= 0. Therefore the Flip-
Flop will set on the application of a clock pulse.
Case iv) J=K=0

 When J=K= 1, it is possible to set or reset the Flip-Flop. If Q is High, AND gate 2 passes
on a reset pulse to the next clock. When Q is low,

 AND gate 1 passes on a set pulse to the next clock. Eitherway, Q changes to the
complement of the last state i.e., toggle.

 Toggle means to switch to the opposite state. The truth table of JK Flip- Flop is given
below.

12
 CLK Inputs Output State
J K Qn+1
1 0 0 Qn No Change
1 0 1 0 Reset
1 1 0 1 Set
1 1 1 Qn‘ Toggle

Fig: Input and output waveforms of JK Flip-Flop

Characteristic table and Characteristic equation:

 The characteristic table for JK Flip-Flop is shown in the table below. From the table, K-map for
the next state transition (Qn+1) can be drawn and the simplified logic expression which
represents the characteristic equation of JK Flip-Flop can be found.

Characteristics table:
Qn J K Qn+1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

13
K-map Simplification:

Characteristic equation: Qn+1= JQ’+ K’Q.

c) D Flip-Flop:

 Like in D latch, in D Flip-Flop the basic SR Flip-Flop is used with complemented inputs.
The D Flip-Flop is similar to D-latch except clock pulse is used instead of enable input.

Fig: D Flip-Flop

 To eliminate the undesirable condition of the indeterminate state in the RS Flip- Flop is to
ensure that inputs S and R are never equal to 1 at the same time.

 This is done by D Flip-Flop. The D (delay) Flip-Flop has one input called delay input
andclock pulse input. The D Flip-Flop using SR Flip-Flop is shown below.

 The truth table of D Flip-Flop is given below,

14
 Clock D Qn+1 State

1 0 0 Reset

1 1 1 Set

0 x Qn No Change
Truth table for D Flip-Flop

Fig: Input and output waveforms of clocked D Flip-Flop

 Looking at the truth table for D Flip-Flop we can realize that Qn+1 function follows the D
input at the positive going edges of the clock pulses.
Characteristic table and Characteristic equation:
The characteristic equation is derived from K-map.
Qn D Qn+1
0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 1 1
Fig: Characteristic table
K-map Simplification:

15
 Characteristic equation: Qn+1= D.

d) T Flip-Flop

 The T (Toggle) Flip-Flop is a modification of the JK Flip-Flop. It is obtained from JK

Flip-Flop by connecting both inputs J and K together, i.e., single input. Regardless of the
present state, the Flip-Flop complements its output when the clock pulse occurs while
input T= 1.

Fig: T Flip-Flop

 When T= 0, Qn+1= Qn, ie., the next state is the sameas the present state and no change
occurs.

 When T= 1, Qn+1= Qn‘,ie., the next state is the complement of the present state.

 The truth table of T Flip-Flop is given below.

T Qn+1 State

0 Qn No change

1 Qn‘ Toggle

Characteristic table and Characteristic equation:

 The characteristic table for T Flip-Flop is shown below and characteristic equation is derived
using K-map.

16
 Qn T Qn+1
0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0
K-map Simplification:

Characteristic equation: Qn+1= TQn’+ T’Qn.

e) Master-Slave JK Flip-Flop

 A master-slave Flip-Flop is constructed using two separate JK Flip-Flops. The first Flip-Flop
is called the master. It is driven by the positive edge of the clock pulse.

 The second Flip-Flop is called the slave. It is driven by the negative edge of the clock
pulse. The logic diagram of a master-slave JK Flip-Flop is shown below.

fig: Logic diagram

 When the clock pulse has a positive edge, the master acts according to its J-K inputs, but
the slave does not respond, since it requires a negative edge at the clock input.

 The clocked master-slave J-K Flip-Flop using NAND gates is shown below

17
 When the clock input has a negative edge, the slave Flip-Flop copies the master outputs. But
the master does not respond since it requires a positive edge at its clock input

18
 UNIT: V
Microcontrollers: Introduction, Architecture, Potential Applications.
Activities: Physical demonstration of a microcontroller and online simulation of microcontroller.

1. Introduction
 A microcontroller (MCU) is a compact, low-cost computer on a single integrated circuit
designed to perform specific control tasks within an embedded system.
 Unlike a general-purpose microprocessor, which requires external components, a
microcontroller integrates a processor, memory, and input/output (I/O) peripherals onto a
single chip.
 Microcontrollers are ubiquitous, acting as the "brain" in countless automated devices, from
simple remote controls and toys to complex automotive engine control systems and medical
devices.
 They are characterized by their small size, low power consumption, and efficiency in
managing dedicated functions, often operating in real-time environments without a complex
operating system.
 They are typically programmed using languages like C, C++, or assembly language.

2. Architecture

 The internal design of a microcontroller typically includes the following core components
integrated on a single chip:
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): The core that fetches, decodes, and executes program
instructions and processes data.
 Memory: Includes program memory (non-volatile, such as Flash or ROM, to store the
firmware permanently) and data memory (volatile RAM for temporary data during
execution).
 Input/Output (I/O) Ports: Physical pins that allow the microcontroller to communicate
with the external world, such as sensors, buttons, LEDs, and motors.
 Interrupts: Interrupts of the microcontroller's primary operations or work and causes it
to execute any other program that is more vital at the time of operation. An interrupts us
a mechanism to put on hold the ongoing operations, execute a subroutine, and then
resumes to another type of operations.

19
 Fig: Architecture of 8051 Microcontroller

 The 8051 microcontroller can be configured in such a way that it temporarily terminates
the basic program at the occurrence of interrupts. When a subroutine is completed, then
the execution of the main program begins. In general, five interrupt sources are there in
8051 microcontroller. There are five vectored interrupts are shown below.

 INT0

 TF0

 INT1

 TF1

 R1/T1

 Out of these (INT0) and (INT1) are an external interrupts, which could be a negative
edge triggered or low level triggered. When all these interrupts are activated, set the
corresponding flags except for serial interrupt. In fact, the interrupt flags are cleared
when the processor branches to the interrupt service routine.

 BUS: In general, the bus is the collection of wires that work as a communication
channel and medium for data transfer. However, these buses include 8, 16, and more
wires of the microcontroller. Therefore, these carry 8 bits, 16 bits simultaneously. Here,
there are two types of buses consists of

 Data bus

 Address bus
20
 Data Bus: 8051 microcontroller consists of 8 bits of the data bus. It is useful to transfer
data of specific applications.
Address Bus: In general, 8051 microcontroller includes 16-bit address bus for carrying
the data. In fact, it is useful to address memory locations and to carry the address from
CPU to memory of the microcontroller. It consists of four addressing modes such as

 Immediate addressing mode

 Direct addressing mode

 Register indirect addressing mode

 Register addressing mode

 I/O Port: Basically, Microcontroller is useful in embedded systems. It is useful to

monitor and control the operations of machines in a Microcontroller Course. Hence, to
connect it to other machines, devices, or peripherals, it needs I/O interfacing ports in the
microcontroller interface. For this reason, 8051 microcontroller has four input, and
output ports to connect it to the other peripherals.
 Timers and Counters : 8051 microcontroller consists of 16-bit timers and counters.
However, these counters are categorized into the 8-bit register. The timer is useful for
the measurement of intervals to determine the pulse width of pulses. For managing
timing operations and counting external events.

 Oscillator : Basically, the microcontroller is a device. Hence, it needs clock pulses for
its operation of microcontroller applications. For this reason, 8051 has an on-chip
oscillator that works as a clock source for CPU of the microcontroller. The output pulses
of the oscillator are stable. Hence, it helps to allow synchronized work of all parts of the
8051 microcontroller.
 Peripherals: Integrated auxiliary components for specialized tasks, which can include:
 Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs): To convert analog signals from sensors into
digital data the CPU can process.
 Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs): (Less common) To convert digital data back
into analog signals for controlling analog devices.
 Communication Interfaces: Such as UART, SPI, I²C, USB, or CAN, for serial data
exchange with other devices.

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  Clock Circuit: An internal oscillator that provides the timing signal to synchronize all
operations.

 Architecturally, most modern microcontrollers use a modified Harvard architecture, which

employs separate buses for program instructions and data, enabling simultaneous access and
improving performance over the traditional Von Neumann architecture.

3. Potential Applications

 Microcontrollers are the foundation of embedded systems across numerous industries.

 Consumer Electronics: Found in everyday appliances like washing machines,
microwave ovens, refrigerators, remote controls, digital cameras, and smartwatches.
 Automotive Systems: Essential for engine control units (ECUs), anti-lock braking
systems (ABS), airbag deployment systems, power windows, and infotainment consoles.
 Industrial Automation: Used to control robotics, assembly lines, CNC machines, and
for process control in manufacturing, managing parameters like temperature and flow
rates.
 Medical Devices: Employed in portable health monitoring equipment like heart rate
monitors, blood pressure monitors, insulin pumps, and pacemakers, where reliability is
critical.
 Internet of Things (IoT) Devices: Act as the core of smart devices such as smart
lighting, security cameras, and environmental sensors, collecting data and enabling
intelligent control and connectivity.
 Office Machines: Integrated into printers, photocopiers, scanners, and fax machines to
manage their specific functions.

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