University of Batna 2
Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science
Departement of Mathematics
Chapter 01: Real Numbers R
By: Brahimi Mahmoud
inf A sup A
Academic year 2024/2025
Chapitre 1 Usual sets of numbers
Usual sets of numbers
Among the different types of numbers:
ℕ = {0, 1, 2, . . . } the set of natural numbers
ℤ = (ℕ) ∪ (−ℕ) = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . } set of relative integers
𝑝
ℚ = {𝑞 where 𝑝 ∈ ℤ, 𝑞 ∈ ℕ∗ and 𝑝, 𝑞 are coprime 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 = 1} set of rational
numbers.
The set of real numbers, denoted ℝ was introduced to complete the set ℚ of rational
numbers we say that 𝑥 is a real number if and only if either 𝑥 ∈ ℚ or 𝑥 ∉ ℚ, 𝑥 is said
to be irrational number 𝑥 ∈ (ℝ − ℚ).
ℕ⊂ℤ⊂ℚ⊂ℝ
These private sets of 0 are respectively noted by ℕ∗ , ℤ∗ , ℚ∗ , ℝ∗ .
Axiomatic definition of real numbers
The set ℝ equipped with two internal laws, addition (+), multiplication (×) or (. ) and a
relation of comparison of the elements of ℝ noted (<) (less than or equal) satisfies the
following axioms:
(ℝ, +) is a commutative group, that's to say
For all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ, (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑧 = 𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧) (associativity of addition)
For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑥 (commutativity of addition)
For all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 + 0 = 𝑥 (0 neutral element)
For all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, there exists an element −𝑥 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑥 + (−𝑥) = 0.
(ℝ∗ , . ) is a commutative group, that's to say
For all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ, (𝑥. 𝑦). 𝑧 = 𝑥. (𝑦. 𝑧) (associativity of multiplication)
For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥. 𝑦 = 𝑦. 𝑥 (commutativity of multiplication)
For all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥. 1 = 𝑥 (1 neutral element)
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For all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ∗ , there exists an element 𝑥⁻¹ = 𝑥 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑥. 𝑥⁻¹ = 1.
Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition, i.e:
For all 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 ∈ ℝ; 𝑥. (𝑦 + 𝑧) = 𝑥. 𝑦 + 𝑥. 𝑧
(ℝ, ≤) is totally ordered, i.e:
For all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, we have: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 (Reflexivity)
For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ we have: if 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 and 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 then 𝑥 = 𝑦 (Antisymmetry)
For all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ we have: if 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 and 𝑦 ≤ 𝑧 then 𝑥 ≤ 𝑧 (Transitivity)
For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ we have: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 or 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 (Total order)
Relation (≤) is compatible with addition and multiplication, i.e:
For all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑥′, 𝑦′ ∈ ℝ checking (𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 and 𝑥′ ≤ 𝑦′) then 𝑥 + 𝑥′ ≤ 𝑦 + 𝑦′
(compatibility of the addition)
For all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑥′, 𝑦′ ∈ ℝ₊ checking (𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 and 𝑥′ ≤ 𝑦′) then 𝑥. 𝑥′ ≤ 𝑦 . 𝑦′
(compatibility of multiplication)
The relation (𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 and 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦) for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ means that 𝑥 < 𝑦
A real number 𝑥 is said to be strictly positive if 0 < 𝑥, the set of strictly positive real
numbers is denoted by ℝ∗+ =]0, +∞[
A real number 𝑥 is said to be strictly negative if 𝑥 < 0, the set of strictly negative
real numbers is denoted by ℝ∗− =] − ∞, 0[
For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, we write 𝑥 − 𝑦 instead of 𝑥 + (−𝑦) and 𝑥𝑦 instead 𝑥. 𝑦
Notion of interval in ℝ
A non-empty part 𝐸 of ℝ is an interval if and only if, for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ verifies 𝑥 < 𝑦
there exists 𝑧 ∈ 𝐸 such that 𝑥 < 𝑧 < 𝑦.
If 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑥₀ denote real numbers such that 𝑎 < 𝑥₀ < 𝑦 the open intervals of ℝ are
]𝑎, 𝑏[, ]𝑎, +∞[, ] − ∞, 𝑎[ and ℝ =] − ∞, +∞[, the intervals which are neither closed
nor open are [𝑎, 𝑏[ and ]𝑎, 𝑏].
If 𝑎 = 𝑏; [𝑎, 𝑎] = {𝑎} and ]𝑎, 𝑎[= ∅.
𝑎 and 𝑏 are called the limits of the interval and (𝑏 − 𝑎) its length.
The total order relation (≤) allows to define the absolute value function in ℝ.
Absolute value in ℝ
Definition
The absolute value in ℝ is a function denoted |. | defined from ℝ to ℝ by: for all
𝑥, if 𝑥 ≥ 0;
𝑥 ∈ ℝ, |𝑥| = max(𝑥, −𝑥), i.e: |𝑥| = {
−𝑥, if 𝑥 < 0.
Proposition
For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, we have:
|𝑥| = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 0
|𝑥𝑦| = |𝑥||𝑦| in particular |𝑥|² = |𝑥²| = 𝑥²
|𝑥| ≤ 𝛼 ⇔ −𝛼 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝛼
|𝑥 + 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥| + |𝑦|
||𝑥| − |𝑦|| ≤ |𝑥 − 𝑦|
|𝑥| ≥ 𝛼 ⇔ 𝑥 ∈] − ∞, 𝛼] ∪ [𝛼, +∞[
Bounded part in ℝ
Definition
Let 𝐸 be a non-empty subset of ℝ, we say that:
𝑀 ∈ ℝ is an upper bound of 𝐸 if, for all 𝒙 ∈ 𝑬, 𝒙 ≤ 𝑴.
The smallest of the majorants when it exists is called the upper bound of 𝐸. It is a
maximum if it belongs to 𝐸. it is noted sup𝐸 or max𝐸.
𝑚 ∈ ℝ is a lower bound of 𝐸 if, for all 𝒙 ∈ 𝑬, 𝒎 ≤ 𝒙.
The largest of the lower bounds when it exists is called the lower bound of 𝐸, it is noted
inf𝐸. It is a minimum if it belongs to 𝐸 and it is noted min𝐸.
Remark
sup𝐸 and inf𝐸 when they exist are unique and [inf𝐸, sup𝐸] is the smallest closed interval
containing 𝐸.
Upper Bound Axiom
Every non-empty part of ℝ and bounded above admits an upper bound.
Remark
Every non-empty part of ℝ and bounded below has a lower bound.
Proposition
Let 𝐸 be a bounded subset of ℝ, M and 𝑚 ∈ ℝ, then:
For all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑥 ≤ 𝑀
𝑀 = supE ⇔ {
For all 𝜀 > 0, there exists 𝑥0 such as 𝑀 − 𝜀 < 𝑥0
For all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑚 ≤ 𝑥
𝑚 = inf𝐸 ⇔ {
For all 𝜀 > 0, there exists 𝑥0 𝑠uch as 𝑥0 < 𝑚 + 𝜀
Examples:
𝐸 = {−1, 0, 1}, minE = −1, maxE = 1
𝐸 = [0, 1], minE = 0, maxE = 1
𝐸 = [0, 1[, minE = 0, supE = 1
𝐸 =]0, 1], infE = 0, maxE = 1
𝐸 =]0, 1[, infE = 0, supE = 1
Archimedes' Axiom
Proposition
For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ∗ , there exists 𝑛 ∈ ℕ∗ such that 𝑛𝑥 > 𝑦 (ℝ is Archimedean).
Remark
ℕ is unbounded above, therefore ℤ is unbounded (it suffices to take 𝑥 = 1 in the
Archimedes axiom).
̅
Completed number line ℝ
Definition
We call the completed number line ℝ the set obtained by adding to ℝ the two distinct
elements −∞ and +∞ verifying, for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ̅ , −∞ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ +∞ (ℝ ̅ = ℝ ∪] − ∞, +∞[)
̅ by setting
Operations on ℝ extend partly to ℝ
̅ , {𝑥 + (+∞) = (+∞) + 𝑥
For all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑥 + (−∞) = (−∞) + 𝑥
̅ , 𝑥(+∞) = (+∞)𝑥 = {+∞, if 𝑥 > 0
For all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
−∞, if 𝑥 < 0
̅ , 𝑥(−∞) = (−∞)𝑥 = {−∞, if 𝑥 > 0
For all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
+∞, if 𝑥 < 0
(+∞) + (+∞) = +∞, (−∞) + (−∞) = −∞, (+∞)(+∞) = +∞,
(−∞)(−∞) = +∞, (−∞)(+∞) = −∞.
Remark
The sum (+∞) + (−∞) and the product 0(+∞) are not defined.
Reasoning by recurrence
The recurrence principle allows us to show that an assertion 𝑃(𝑛), depending on naturel
number 𝑛, is true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, the demonstration by recurrence takes place in two steps:
- We prove 𝑃(𝑛) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑛0 (initial condition)
- We assume 𝑃(𝑛) is true and we show that 𝑃(𝑛 + 1) is true (final condition).
Once this is established, we conclude that 𝑃(𝑛) is true for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛0 .
Example:
𝑛(𝑛+1)
Show that ∀𝑛 ≥ 1; 1 + 2+. . . 𝑛 = .
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