Superposition and Interference

Unit I Interference is only noticeable if the light sources are

WAVE Optics monochromatic (so all the light has the same
wavelength) and coherent (different sources maintain
the same phase relationship over space and time).
[Link] Bhide
Professor , Dept of Physics
NIT-Py If this is true, interference will be constructive where
the two waves are in phase, and destructive where they
are out of phase.
 Principle of super position Principle of super position
• When waves interfere constrctively: • When waves interfere destructively:
 Superposition and Interference Conditions for Observable
Interference
To summarize, the two path lengths l1 and l2 will interfere • Coherent Sources
constructively or destructively according to the following: – Coherent sources are those which emit light waves of
the same wavelength or frequency and are always in
phase with each other or have a constant phase
difference..
• Amplitudes
– The two sets of wave must have roughly equal
amplitude.
• Path Difference
– The path difference between the light waves must not
be too great.
 Schematic diagram of Young’s
Young’s experiment
double-slit experiment

Light
source

Single
slit
 Young’s Two-Slit Experiment Young’s Two-Slit Experiment
As the pattern on the screen shows, the light on the screen has
alternating light and dark fringes, corresponding to
constructive and destructive interference.
The path difference is given by:

The dark fringes are between

Therefore, the condition for bright fringes (constructive the bright fringes; the condition
interference) is: for dark fringes is:
 Young’s Two-Slit Experiment
Interference Equations
• The positions of the fringes can be measured This diagram illustrates
vertically from the zeroth order maximum the numbering of the
• y = D tan θ  D sin θ fringes.
• Assumptions
– D>>d
– d>>λ
• Approximation
– θ is small and therefore the approximation tan θ  sin θ
can be used
Distribution of Intensity due to interference Appearance of Young’s interference
Fringes
• If the source slit is moved nearer to the double
slits the separation of the fringes is unaffected but
their brightness increases.
• If the separation of the double slits decreases, the
separation of the fringes increases.
where • If the width of slits is widened, the number of
fringes decreases.
• If white light is used the central fringe is white and
the fringes on either side are coloured.

All symbols with usual notation

 Interference Fringe Pattern
Dependence of fringe-width with respect to Interference in Thin Films
wavelength of the source
• Ray 1 undergoes a phase
change of 180° with
respect to the incident ray
• Ray 2, which is reflected
from the lower surface,
undergoes no phase
change with respect to the
incident wave
 Interference by Thin Films Application :Interference by Thin Films
• Thin film interference patterns seen in
Thin film of soapy water Seashell CD’s and DVD’s
• Data is stored digitally
– A series of ones and zeros read by laser light reflected
from the disk
• Strong reflections correspond to constructive
interference
– These reflections are chosen to represent zeros
• Weak reflections correspond to destructive
interference
– These reflections are chosen to represent ones
A thin layer of oil on the
Water of a street puddle
CD’s and Thin Film Interference Reading a CD
• A CD has multiple tracks • As the disk rotates, the laser
reflects off the sequence of
– The tracks consist of a sequence of pits of bumps and lower areas into a
varying length formed in a reflecting photodector
– The photodector converts the
information layer fluctuating reflected light intensity
into an electrical string of zeros
• The pits appear as bumps to the laser beam and ones
– The laser beam shines on the metallic layer • The pit depth is made equal to
through a clear plastic coating one-quarter of the wavelength
of the light
 Reading a CD…. DVD’s
• When the laser beam hits a rising or falling bump • DVD’s use shorter wavelength lasers
edge, part of the beam reflects from the top of the
bump and part from the lower adjacent area – The track separation, pit depth and minimum
– This ensures destructive interference and very low pit length are all smaller
intensity when the reflected beams combine at the – Therefore, the DVD can store about 30 times
detector more information than a CD
• The bump edges are read as ones
• The flat bump tops and intervening flat plains are
read as zeros
 Air wedge experiment
Conditions for Interference in
Thin Films
• Ray 2 also travels an additional distance of 2t
before the waves recombine
• For constructive interference
– 2μt = (n+ ½ ) λ m = 0, 1, 2 …
• This takes into account both the difference in optical path
length for the two rays and the 180° phase change
• For destruction interference
– 2 μ t = n λ m = 0, 1, 2 …
Newton’s Rings Newton’s Rings
 RADII of DARK FRINGES

 radius of curvature
of the lens

thickness of the air film 

dark fringe be located 

 radius of the circular fringe

Mathematical Analysis of Newton’s Rings Mathematical Analysis of Newton’s Rings
B B

2R-t C
A E R
D t
2R-t C
O K
R r
All such points will lie on a circle with O as the centre and r as the radius.
D A E
t DA  AE = OA AB = OA (OB – OA)
DA = AE = r ; OA = t ; OB = 2R
O K 2
Therefore, r = t (2R - t)
r If 2R >> t, therefore, t may be neglected as compared to 2R. So,
R2 =r2 + (R-t)2
r2 r2 = 2 R t

r2 = 2Rt – t2 , since 2Rt >> t2 t t

r2
rn2  2Rt 2R 2R
 DIAMETER OF THE RINGS
CENTER IS DARK
Dn = 2rn rn2  2Rt
Diameter of the nth dark ring

rn  nR D n  2 2Rt
D n  2 nR

Diameter of the nth bright ring

λR
rn  (2n  1) D n  2 2Rt
2
λR
D n  2 (2n  1)
2
SPACING BETWEEN THE FRINGES DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT
Diameter of the mth dark ring
The diameter of the dark rings is D n  2 n R n  1, 2,3... Dm2 p  Dm2
Dm2 = 4 mλR λ
Therefore, 4pR
D1  2 λR  2(1) λR Diameter of the (m+p)th dark ring
D 2  2 2R  2(1.4) λR Dm2
Dm+p2 = 4 (m+p) λR Dm+p2-Dm2

D3  2 3R  2(1.7) λR  Dm+p2 - Dm2 = 4 pλR

m m+p
D 4  2 4R  2(2.0) λR The slope is, D 2m  p  D 2m m
 4λR
p
Thus,
Dn  n n  1, 2,3.. not D n  n λ
slope
4R
Hence, the rings get closer and closer as the order of rings i.e. ‘n’
increases. R may be determined by using a spherometer
This causes the rings to be unevenly spaced.  λ is calculated.
Diffraction
Diffraction…..
A wave passing through a
small opening will diffract, as
• The results of the single slit
shown. This means that, after cannot be explained by
the opening, there are waves geometric optics
traveling in directions other
than the direction of the – Geometric optics would say
original wave. that light rays traveling in
straight lines should cast a
sharp image of the slit on the
screen
 Diffraction through a single slit Diffraction….
• A single slit placed between a distant light source and a
• Diffraction refers to the spreading or bending of waves
around edges. screen produces a diffraction pattern
– Wavelength of the source should be greater
than or equal to the dimension of the slit/
obstacle.
– It will have a broad, intense central band
– The central band will be flanked by a series of
narrower, less intense secondary bands:
Secondary maxima
The fringe pattern formed by a single slit consists of
Alternate bright and dark fringes and the fringes fade – The central band will also be flanked by a
away from the centre. series of dark bands: minima
 Single Slit Diffraction… Single Slit Diffraction….
• All the waves that originate at the slit are in phase • In general constryctive interference occurs
• Wave 1 travels farther than wave 3 by an amount for a single slit of width a when sin θdark =
equal to the path difference (w/2) sin θ mλ / a
• If this path difference is exactly half of a – m = 1, 2, 3, …
wavelength, the two waves cancel each other and
destructive interference results
• Doesn’t give any information about the
variations in intensity along the screen
 Diffraction Diffraction
This pattern is due to the difference in path length
from different parts of the opening.
The second dark fringe occurs
when:
The first dark fringe occurs
when:
Distribution of Intensity due to double slit
single slit diffraction Diffraction through a single slit

condition for diffraction( dark fringes) :

Condition for minimum intensity is D sin θn= n
 Diffraction
Single Slit Diffraction…. In general, then, we have for the dark fringes in a single-slit
interference pattern:
• The general features of the
intensity distribution are shown
• A broad central bright fringe is
flanked by much weaker bright
fringes alternating with dark
fringes The positive and negative values of m account for the
• The points of constructive symmetry of the pattern around the center.
interference lie approximately
halfway between the dark Diffraction fringes can be observed by holding your finger
fringes and thumb very close together (it helps not to be too
farsighted!)

d- typically used symbols for separation of the slits

W a/ typically used for width of the slits
Some Diffraction Patterns Multiple Slits

Double slit pattern Three-slit pattern

The fringes of the double There is a subsidiary

slit pattern fade away from maximum between the
centre and disappear at the double slit [Link]
single slit minimum. fringes become
narrower and sharper.
Distribution of Intensity due to double slit Distribution of Intensity due to double slit
double slit diffraction double slit diffraction
Multiple Slits (2)

• The fringes become

sharper as the number
of slits is increased.
• The subsidiary
maxima become less
and less significant as
the number of slits is
increased.
 Diffraction Grating
• A large number of equally spaced parallel slits is
Action of Diffraction Grating
called a diffraction grating. X
• If d is the slit spacing then the
path difference between the
• A diffraction grating can be thought of as an light rays X and Y = d sin θ.
optical component that has tiny grooves cut into θ • For principal maxima,
it. The grooves are cut so small that their d sin θ = nλ.
measurements approach the wave length of light. θ Y • The closer the slits, the more
d widely spaced are the
diffracted beams.
θ
Path difference • The longer the wavelength of
light used, the more widely
= d sin θ
spaced are the diffracted
beams.
Diffraction Gratings Diffraction Gratings

A system with a large number of slits is called a

The positions of the peaks are
diffraction grating.
different for different wavelengths
of light. As the number of slits grows, the peaks become
The condition for constructive narrower and more intense. Here is the diffraction
interference in a diffraction pattern for five slits:
grating:
View through Diffraction Grating
Number of Diffraction beams
• Since sin θ  1,
n=2 n
 1
θ2 n=1 d
θ1 d
θ1 n=0 n 
 Spectrum of a star θ2 
• Diffraction grating n=1
- Procyon The highest order
placed in front of a n=2 number is given by the
methane air flame
value of d/λ rounded
down to the nearest whole
number.
 Diffraction Gratings

Diffraction can also be observed upon reflection from narrowly-

spaced reflective grooves; the most familiar example is the
recorded side of a CD. Some insect wings also display reflective
diffraction, especially butterfly wings.