SESSION 5: RESEARCH DESIGN

5.1 Introduction
Welcome to this subsection which is the fifth chapter in research methodology. In
the last session, we looked at literature review. This Chapter describes all the steps
required in research design.
5.2 Learning outcomes
At the end of the lesson the leaner should know important issues of research design
5.3 Meaning
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an
inquiry or a research study constitute a research design. Research design is the
conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. Decisions
regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry
or a research study constitute a research design. “A research design is the
arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims
to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.” In fact,
the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted;
it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As
such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data

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5.4 Need for Research Design

The process guides researchers on how to collect, analyze and interpret observations. The
following are factors to consider when preparing research design
 Objectives of the research study -must answer the research questions; numbered with
action verbs
 Method of Data Collection to be adopted - Forms of data: Primary or secondary, must
be appropriate for the study problem;
 Source of information - population, sample size and sampling design.
The sample should be representative of the larger population and well selected to allow
making accurate estimates
 Tool for Data collection - Reliability and validity of research tool is essential
 Data Analysis - Processing steps to follow type of research, whether qualitative and
quantitative

5.5 Types of Research Design

Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as: (1)
research design in case of exploratory research studies; (2) research design in case of
descriptive and diagnostic research studies, and (3) research design in case of
hypothesis-testing research studies. We take up each category separately.

5.5.1 Research design in case of exploratory research studies:

Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main
purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point
of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights.
As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to
provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study.
Inbuilt flexibility research design is needed because the research problem, broadly
defined initially, istransformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies,
which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data.
Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies
are talked about: (a) the survey of concerning literature; (b) the experience survey and (c)
the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.

(a) The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful
method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. 2
Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be
evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the
already stated hypotheses
suggest new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon
the work already done by others, but in cases where hypotheses have not yet been
formulated, his task is to review the available material for deriving the relevant
hypotheses from it.

(b)Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience
with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the
relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For
such a survey people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may
be
carefully selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of
experience. The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator.
The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning
of informants. But the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the
respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator
has not previously considered. Generally, the experience collecting interview is
likely to be long and may last for few hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable
to send a copy of the questions to be discussed to the respondents well in advance. This
will also give an opportunity to the respondents for doing some advance thinking
over the various issues involved so that, at the time of interview, they may be able
to contribute effectively.

Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more
concisely and help in the formulation of the research hypothesis. This survey may
as well provide information about the practical possibilities for doing different
types of research. Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples is also a fruitful method
for suggesting hypotheses for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there
is little experience to serve as a guide.

This method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the

phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if
any, may be examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other
approach may be adopted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study
and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified
interpretation are the main features which make this method an appropriate
procedure for evoking insights. 3
Now, what sort of examples are to be selected and studied? There is no clear cut
answer to it. Experience indicates that for particular problems certain types of
instances are more appropriate than others. One can mention few examples of
‘insight-stimulating’ cases such as the reactions of strangers, the reactions of
marginal individuals, the study of individuals who are in transition from one stage
to another, the reactions of individuals from different social strata and the like.

In general, cases that provide sharp contrasts or have striking features are considered
relatively more useful while adopting this method of hypotheses formulation.
Thus, in an exploratory of formulative research study which merely leads to
insights or hypotheses, whatever method or research design outlined above is
adopted, the only thing essential is that it must continue to remain flexible so that
many different facets of a problem may be considered as and when they arise and
come to the notice of the researcher.

1.5.2 Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with
describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas
diagnostic
research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its
association with something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are
associated are examples of diagnostic research studies. As against this, studies
concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics
concerning individual, group or situation are all examples of descriptive research
studies. Most of the social research comes under this category. From the point of
viewof the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common
requirements and as such we may group together these two types of research studies.
In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define
clearly, what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it
along with a clear cut definition of ‘population’ he wants to study. Since the aim is to
obtain complete and accurate information in the said studies, the procedure to be used
must be carefully planned. The research design must make enough provision
for
protection against bias and must maximise reliability, with due concern for the
economical completion of the research study. The design in such studies must be rigid
and not flexible and must focus attention on the following:
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 i. Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it
being made?)
ii. Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data
will be adopted?)
iii. Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)

iv. Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time
period should the data be related?)
v. Processing and analysing the data.

vi. Reporting the findings.

In a descriptive/diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives with

sufficient precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not done
carefully, the study may not provide the desired information.

Then comes the question of selecting the methods by which the data are to be obtained.
In other words, techniques for collecting the information must be devised. Several
methods (viz., observation, questionnaires, interviewing, examination of records,
etc.), with their merits and limitations, are available for the purpose and the researcher
may user one or more of these methods which have been discussed in detail in
later chapters. While designing data-collection procedure, adequate safeguards
against bias and unreliability must be ensured. Whichever method is selected,
questions must be well examined and be made unambiguous; interviewers must be
instructed not to express their own opinion; observers must be trained so that they
uniformly record a given item of behaviour. It is always desirable to pretest the data
collection instruments before they are finally used for the study purposes. In other
words, we can say that “structured instruments” are used in such studies.

In most of the descriptive/diagnostic studies the researcher takes out sample(s)

and then wishes to make statements about the population on the basis of the
sample analysis or analyses. More often than not, sample has to be designed.
Different sample designs have been discussed in detail in a separate chapter in this
book. Here we may only mention that the problem of designing samples should be
tackled in such a fashion that the samples may yield accurate information with a
minimum amount of research effort. Usually one or more forms of probability
sampling, or what is often described as random sampling, are used.

To obtain data free from errors introduced by those responsible for collecting them,
it is necessary to supervise closely the staff of field workers as they collect and
record information. Checks may be set up to ensure that the data collecting staff 5
perform their duty honestly and without prejudice. “As data are collected, they
should be examined for completeness, comprehensibility, consistency and
reliability.”

The data collected must be processed and analysed. This includes steps like coding
the interview replies, observations, etc.; tabulating the data; and performing
several statistical computations. To the extent possible, the processing and
analysing procedure should be planned in detail before actual work is started. This
will prove economical in the sense that the researcher may avoid unnecessary
labour such as preparing tables for which he later finds he has no use or on the
other hand, re-doing some tables because he failed to include relevant data. Coding
should be done carefully to avoid error in coding and for this purpose the reliability
of coders needs to be checked. Similarly, the accuracy of tabulation may be checked
by having a sample of the tables re-done. In case of mechanical tabulation the
material (i.e., the collected data or information) must be entered on appropriate
cards which is usually done by punching holes corresponding to a given code. The
accuracy of punching is to be checked and ensured. Finally, statistical
computations are needed and as such averages, percentages and various
coefficients must be worked out. Probability and sampling analysis may as well be
used. The appropriate statistical operations, along with the use of appropriate tests
of significance should be carried out to safeguard the drawing of conclusions
concerning the study.

Last of all comes the question of reporting the findings. This is the task of
communicating the findings to others and the researcher must do it in an efficient
manner. The layout of the report needs to be well planned so that all things relating
to the research study may be well presented in simple and effective style.

Thus, the research design in case of descriptive/diagnostic studies is a comparative

design throwing light on all points narrated above and must be prepared keeping
in view the objective(s) of the study and the resources available. However, it must
ensure the minimization of bias and maximization of reliability of the evidence
collected. The said design can be appropriately referred to as a survey design since
it takes into account all the steps involved in a survey concerning a phenomenon
to be studied.
The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of research
studies can be conveniently summarised in tabular form as under:
Table 4.1

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 Research Types of Study
Design
Overall Design Flexible design (d opportunity Rigid design( design must
for considering different aspects make different enough
of the problem)against bias and provision for protection
reliability) aspects of the problem)
against bias
and must maximise
reliability)
[Link] Non –probability sampling Probability sampling
design design(purposive or design (random
[Link] judgement sampling) sampling)
design No pre-planned design for analysis Pre-planned design for
[Link] Unstructured instruments for analysis Structured or well
design collection of data thought out data
4. instruments for collection of
Operational data
No fixed decisions about the
design Advanced decisions
operational procedures
about operational
procedures.

5.5.3 Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies

Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are

those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between
variables. Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and
increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality. Usually
experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of research design in
such studies, we often mean the design of experiments.
Professor R.A. Fisher’s name is associated with experimental designs. Beginning
of such designs was made by him when he was working at Rothamsted
Experimental Station (Centre for Agricultural Research in England). As such the
study of experimental designs has its origin in agricultural research. Professor
Fisher found that by dividing agricultural fields or plots into different blocks and
then by conducting experiments in each of these blocks, whatever information is
collected and inferences drawn from them, happens to be more reliable. This fact
inspired him to develop certain experimental designs for testing hypotheses
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concerning scientific investigations. Today, the experimental designs are being
used in researches relating to phenomena of several disciplines. Since experimental
designs originated in the context of agricultural operations, we still use, though in
a technical sense, several terms of agriculture (such as treatment, yield, plot, block
etc.) in experimental designs.

5.6 Limitations of Research Design

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, the researcher is

limited by the following factors:
(i) The means of obtaining information;

(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;

(iii) The objective of the problem to be studied;

(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and

(v) The availability of time and money for the research work.
5.7 Summary
In this session, we defined the term “research design”, its main features of a good
research design and reviewed its key terms, concepts, related to the research
design. We also discussed in detailed the types of research design, basic principles
and importance of experimental research design.
5.8 Session Quiz
Activity

5.9 Reflection
Think over what you have learnt in this unit , then reflect on the question:
 Has session five influenced my understanding of research design?
5.10 References and further Reading

i) James Harold Fox, Criteria of Good Research, Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 39
(March, 1958), pp. 285–86.
ii) Danny N. Bellenger and Barnett, A. Greenberg, “Marketing Research—A
Management Information Approach”, p. 107–108.

iii) Business Research Methods; Pamela S. Schindler, 2018 13th edition, Mc

Graw Hill Education (UK) ISBN 9781260091861
iv) Business Research Methods 9th Edition William G. Zikmund, Barry J.
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Babin, et al. | Mar 12, Mc Graw Hill Education (UK) 2012ISBN-13: 978-
 1111826925 ISBN-10: 1111826927
v) L.V. Redman and A.V.H. Mory, The Romance of Research, 1923, p.10.
TheEncyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. IX, MacMillan