INJIBARA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND BEHAVIORAL

SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND

EDUCATION

MODULE FOR THE COURSE: CHILD DEVELOPMENT

COURSE CODE: ECCE 2011

BY: ADANE T. (M.A)

INJIBARA,
ETHIOPIA

November 2015
E.C

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Chapter one: Meanings of Basic concepts and principles of child development
1. Introduction to childhood and developmental psychology
1.1. Introduction to Childhood and Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of progressive psychological changes that
occur in human beings as they age. Originally concerned with infants and children, it is often
called child development or child psychology. As the study of other periods of great change
such as adolescence and aging were added, it now encompasses the entire life span, and is also
referred to as Lifespan psychology. This field examines change across a broad range of topics
including: Perceptual motor skills, problem solving abilities, acquisition of language, moral
understanding, and identity formation (Santrock, 1999).
Children and childhood

Early childhood years are critical in a child’s life in that the rate of development is more rapid
during these years. Child Development includes the a) physical, b) intellectual, c) social, and d)
emotional changes that occur from birth to adolescence. Although people change throughout
their lives, developmental changes are especially dramatic in childhood.

Sayings about Early child hood stage

• The child is the father of the man

• As the twig is bent the tree is inclined.
• You cannot teach an old dog with new tricks.
• The child shows the man as the morning shows the day

Childhood is an important social category which defines children’s activities and experiences.
‘Childhood’ also defines children’s role and status, and it is closely linked to beliefs about their
needs, rights, vulnerabilities and competencies. Children’s experiences of childhood are not
simply an expression of the fact that they are young, growing and learning. Their childhood is
shaped by the circumstances in which they grow up, and by the beliefs and attitudes of those who

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influence them. This distinction between children and childhood has been summed up by James
and Prout:

The immaturity of children is a biological fact but the ways in which that immaturity is
understood is a fact of culture ... childhood is ... constructed and reconstructed both for and by
children. (James and Prout, 1997)
Development is about progressing, physically and psychologically, from dependent immaturity
towards more mature competence and adulthood. Botanical metaphors have been especially
influential, wherein a child’s development, like a plant’s, is seen as a process of naturally
unfolding. Child Development- is the scientific study of the patterns of growth, change, and
stability that occur from conception through adolescence.

1.1. Historical view of children and Childhood

Childhood has become such a distinct time of life that it is hard to imagine it was not always
thought of as a special stage. To some extent, children were treated as miniature adults in
medieval Europe. From the Middle Ages to about the 17th century in Western Europe, children
were basically seen as adults on a smaller scale (Aries, 1962). Children dressed like adults, did
adult-like work, and even played the same games.

Throughout history, philosophers have speculated about the nature of children and how they
should be reared (premodern, towards the modern and modern/contemporary views of children).
The concept of childhood and treatment of children through history has always been tied to
economic, religious, and social factors. Different eras in history have tended to view children as
miniature adults, born in sin, blank slates, innocent, economic valuables, competent, and as
citizens with rights. At different times, one or the other of these perspectives has tended to
prevail.

Contemporary child development is the result of centuries of change in western cultural values,
Philosophical thinking about children and scientific progress beginning from the medieval times,
Reformation (16thc), Enlightment (17th) and scientific beginning(18th,19th and 20thC).To
understand the field as it exists today, we must return to its beginning to influence that long
preceded scientific child study. We will see that early ideas about children stay as important
forces in current theory and research.

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 A. Medieval times
In Medieval Europe ( 6th-15th century), little importance was placed on childhood as a separate
phase of the life cycle. Once children emerged from infancy , they were regarded as miniature,
already formed adults a view called preformationism ( Aries, 1962). This attitude is reflected in
the art, entertainment, and language of the times.

Toys and games were not designed to amuse children, but were for all people. Age was
unimportant in Medieval custom and usage. Age was not recorded in family and civil records
until the 15th and 16th century. Nevertheless, faint glimmerings/dim intermittent light of the idea
that children are unique emerged during medieval times. But even with some awareness of the
vulnerability of children, no theories described the uniqueness of childhood or separate
developmental periods.

Historical artifacts and writing show that childhood was regards as a separated period of life as
early as medieval Europe the sixth through fifteenth centuries. Medieval painters often depicted
children as childlike dressed in loose, comfortable gowns while playing games and looking up to
adults. Written texts contained terms that distinguished children under 7 to 8 from other people
and that recognized even young teenager as not fully mature (Lett, 1997).

In sum, in medieval times, if not before, clear awareness existed of children as vulnerable being
and of childhood as a distinct developmental period. Religious writing however contained
contradictory beliefs about children basic nature. Sometimes infants were, portrayed as
possessed by the devil and in need of purification through exorcism and baptism. At other times,
they were characterized as innocent and close to angels. Both ideas foreshadowed views of
childhood in succeeding centuries.

B. The Reformation
In the 16th centuries, a revised image of childhood sprang from the puritans beliefs in original
sin. According to puritan doctrine, children were born evil and stubborn and had to be civilized
(Shahar, 1990). Harsh restrictive child rearing practices were recommended to discipline the
depraved child. Children were dressed in stiff, uncomfortable clothing that held them in adult
like postures and disobedient students were routinely beaten by their schoolmasters.

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Although punitiveness was the prevailing childrearing philosophy, love and affection for their
children prevented many Puritan parents from exercising extremely repressive measures. As the
puritans emigrated from England to America, they brought the beliefs that child rearing was one
of their most important obligation. Although they continued to regard the child’s soul as tainted
by original sin, they tried to encourage their sons and daughters to use reason so they could
separate right from wrong. The puritans were the first to devise special reading materials for
children that instructed them in religious and moral ideas. As they trained their children in self-
reliance and self-control, puritan parents gradually adopted a moderate balance between severity
and permissiveness (Pollock, 1987).

C. Philosophies of the Enlightenment (Early philosophical perspectives on childhood)

The 17th c Enlightenment brought new philosophies of reason and emphasized ideas of human
dignity and respect. Conceptions of childhood were more humane than those of centuries past.
In the west, three influential philosophical views are based on the ideas of original sin, tabula
rasa and innate goodness. Lively speculation about human nature led these philosophers to
carefully consider each of the following issues:

■ Are children inherently good or bad?

■ Are children driven by inborn motives and instincts; or, rather, are they products of their
environments?

■ Are children actively involved in shaping their characters; or are they passive creatures molded
by parents, teachers, and other agents of society

I. Original Sin View (Thomas Hobbes’s (1651/1904) -Children in Need of Redemption

Reflective Activity
How does the original sin view perceive children?

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In the original sin view, especially advocated during the middle ages children were perceived as
being basically bad, born into the world corrupted, with an inclination toward evil. The goal of
child rearing is to save children from sin, i.e. to remove sin from the child’s life.

 The image of the child during the 1300s to 1800s was shaped by the religious belief that
children were born in sin and needed redemption.
 Children were viewed as being born into the world as evil beings.
 Misbehavior of any kind was considered sinful and punished harshly.
 Many people today continue to believe that severe punishment is necessary to shape
children’s moral character.
 It was believed that children were born evil and stubborn and had to be civilized. It is the
idea that children are inherently negative creatures who must be taught to rechannel their
selfish interests into socially acceptable outlets.
[Link] Rasa View: John Lock (1632-1704) - Children as Blank Slates

Reflective Activity
How does the Tabula Rasa View see children?

The leading British philosopher, served as the forerunner of a 17th century perspective:
behaviorism. Lock vied the child as a tabula rasa. Translated from Latin, this means a “blank
slate.” According to these ideas, children are, to begin with, nothing at all, and all kinds of
experience /environment/interaction/ can shape their character. Towards the end of the
seventeenth century, English philosopher John Locke proposed that at birth each child is a
‘tabula rasa’ a “blank tablet.” It is the idea that the mind of an infant is a “blank slate” and that
all knowledge, abilities, behaviors, and motives are acquired through experience.

Locke believed that people acquire their characteristics through experience and that childhood
experiences are important in determining adult characteristics. He advised parents to spend time
with their children and help them become contributing members of society. He described parents
as rational tutors who can mold the child in any they wish, through careful instruction, effective
example, and rewards for good behavior. He was ahead of his time in recommending child-
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rearing practice that present today’s research report. For example, Locke suggested that parents
rewards children not money or sweet but with praise and approval. He also opposes physical
punishment; the child repeatedly beaten in school cannot look upon books and teachers without
experiencing fear and anger. Locke’s philosophy led to a change from harshness towards
children to kindness and compassion.

Look carefully at Locke’s ideas and you will see that he regarded development as continues;
adult like behavior are gradually built up through the warm, consistent teaching of parents.
Furthermore, his views of the child as a tabula rasa meant that he championed nurture the power
of the environment to shape the child .and his faith in nurture suggests the possibility of many
courses of development and of change at later age due to new experience.

Finally, Locke’s philosophy characterizes children as doing little to influence their own destiny,
which is written on blank slates by others. This version of passive child has been discarded, all
contemporary theories views children as active, purposeful being who make sense of their world
and contribute substantially to their own development.

III. Innate Goodness/ innate purity/View: Jean–Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): Children as

Innocents

Reflective Activity
Describe the perception of Innate Goodness View about children

In the eighteenth century, the concept of innate goodness was presented by Swiss-born French
philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau. According to him, children are noble savages-naturally
endowed with a sense of right and wrong and with an innate plan for orderly, healthy [Link] is
the idea that infants are born with an intuitive sense of right and wrong that is often misdirected
by the demands and restrictions of society.

Rousseau (1762) claimed, Children are not blank slate and empty containers to be filled by
adult’s instruction. Instead, they are noble savages, naturally endowed with a sense of right and

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wrong and with an innate plan for orderly, health growth. Unlike Locke, Rousseau thoughts
children’s built moral sense and unique ways of thinking and feeling would only be receptive to
the child’s needs at each of four stages: infancy, Childhood, late childhood and adolescence.
Rousseau’s philosophy includes two influential concepts.

The first is the concepts of stage. These are: infancy, Childhood, late childhood and
adolescence. The second is the concepts of maturation, which refers to a genetically

determined, naturally unfolding course of growth. In contrast to Locke, Rousseau saw

children as determining their own destinies. And he took a different stands on basic
developmental issues. He saw development as a discontinuous, stage wise process that
follows a single unified course mapped out by nature.

He stressed that children are inherently good. As a result, Rousseau said that they should be
permitted to grow naturally with little parental monitoring or constraint. These conflicting views
formed the historical backdrop for the study of childhood and for child-rearing practices. In the
past century and a half, our view of children has changed dramatically.

But today, we conceive of childhood as a highly eventful and unique period of life that lays an
important foundation for the adult years and is highly differentiated from them. Most approaches
to childhood identify distinct periods in which special skills are mastered and new life tasks are
confronted. We now value childhood as a special time of growth and change, and we invest great
resources in caring for and educating our children.

1.2. Origins of the new science (The Modern Study of Child Development:/ The Competent
Child/
Scientific child study evolved quickly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Scientific
child study was commenced by child biographies and are followed by normative period of child
study. It considers childhood period as distinct stage and child development as a discipline.
Scientific study of children beginning in the 20th century led to an alternative view of childhood
the competent child the idea that children are active players in their own development and
learning.

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A number of major theories, along with elegant techniques and methods of study, help organize
our thinking about children’s development. During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, a
major shift took place from a strictly philosophical perspective on human psychology to a
perspective that includes direct observation and experimentation. As the field of human
development became scientific discipline, its goals evolved to include description, explanation,
predication, and modification of behavior. Research on child development involved and this
leads to early observation replaced by improved methods and theories.

1.3. Section one: Meaning of Basic Concepts in Child Development

1.2.
1.3.1. The Concept of Growth

Growth is sometimes used to refer all the quantitative changes brought about in the structure and
functions of the human anatomy and physiology. Growth refers to physical change in a human
body that can be expressed quantitatively. Changes in growth are either increment or decrement
of a certain human body. It can be measured in Kg, pounds, meters, inches… [Link] instance, an
increment of the body in terms of dimensions: height and weight are good examples of growth.

It more specifically refers to the quantitative changes in size which include physical changes
in height, weight, size, internal organs, etc. Growth involves changes in body proportions as
well as in overall stature and weight.. But the rate of growth differs from one part of the
body to the other.
1.3.2. The Concept of Maturation
Maturation- is the unfolding of traits potentially present in the individual considering his
hereditary endowment (Gesell 1977). It is the sum of the gene effects operating in a self-
limited life style. It doesn’t only refer to change in physical characteristics but also in
function, in the capacity to perform or to behave, which are possible through changes in any
part of the organism. It rather refers to changes that take place in one’s body and behavior
because one is getting older, or because of age (Shaffer, 1996).

Maturation refers to changes that are internally programmed by heredity. The change due
to heredity is little influenced by the environment. It is describing the qualitative change in a
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structure. For example, a one-month-old baby is incapable of learning to walk because
he/she is simply not mature enough, not old enough to be capable of walking. All humans
are biologically programmed to mature at about the same rate, i.e. go through changes at
roughly the same time. Besides, some human characteristics related with age such as,
Puberty, adulthood may be delayed by environmental factors but the individual should
arrive through the genetically steps is fulfilled by maturation.

1.3.3. The Concept of Learning

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change that occurs in an individual as a result of experience or
practice (Slavin, 1997). Learning due to experience may be either from one or interactive many
sources such as, formal schooling, peer influence, parental involvement, and social norms and so
on. A change in learning is descending from some environmental variables and not to be
temporary.

In order to develop or change, we also need to learn how to do things. We often talk of
learners learning the multiplication tables but not developing an understanding of
multiplication. This illustrates that the term learning is often used to refer to short-term
specific gains in knowledge, while development is used to refer to more long-term, broader
changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes and mental states.(Desforges, 1995) Learning is the
result of activities or day-to-day experiences on the child her/himself. Maturation and
learning complement one another in the development of an individual.
1.3.4. The Concept of Development
Development is the pattern of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes that begins
at conception and continues through the life span. Most development involves growth,
although it also eventually involves decay/dying (Santrock, 2011). It is a progressive series
of qualitative changes that occur as a result of maturity and experience. Thus at each stage
certain developmental processes bring changes in the individual in different aspects of life
such as physical, social, psychological and emotional. The speed of change varies from one
individual to another but it follows a definite and predictable pattern. Every individual has to

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 go through the various stages of childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. The terms
growth and development are often used interchangeably. Actually they are conceptually
different. Neither growth nor development takes place all by itself. Human beings keep
changing. During their lives, they change in size, appearance and psychological makeup.
The way they change differs from individual to individual. But the fundamental underlying
patterns of growth and development remain more or less the same and take place in an
orderly way.

Development is simply a change in a human being due to the triple effect of growth, maturation
and learning. Any type of development whether it is physical, mental, emotional and moral are
resulted in maturation, experience, social interaction and adaptation. It is a systematic and
continuities in the individual that occurs between conceptions and death or from" womb to
tomb".

It is characterized by
Systematic- orderly patterned and relatively enduring not fleeting and unpredictable like mood
swings.
Continuities - ways, in which we remain the same or continue to reflect our pasts.
What Causes Us to Develop?

N.B Developmental changes or processes are the product of interaction between nature (genetic
endowment and maturation) and nurture (environmental influences and learning).
Similarities and Differences among Growth, Maturation, Learning and Development
Development
- It is both qualitative and quantitative but more of qualitative
- Products of biological and Environmental interaction but more of nurture.
-Dev’t is inner process, continues in many different forms of life.
Growth
 It is quantitative change.
It is biological /hereditary/ Changes.
 It is physical or outer process ends at maturation
 Maturation and growth are related to nature

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Aspects of Human Development/topical Areas in Child Development.
 Human development falls under three broad domains namely, physical, cognitive and psycho social
(socio emotional) development.

Activity 3 Describe the physical ,cognitive, psychosocial development

A. Physical Development; includes all growth changes in persons’ body. For example
Changes in height, weight, bone thickness, muscles and brain organ and motor skills.
B. Cognitive development; includes changes in perception, thinking, language, problem
solving, reasoning, mathematical understanding, memory, imagination and so forth.
C. Psycho Social development; includes changes in social attitude, behavior, group
dynamics and interpersonal skills, Personality development like focuses on
development of self-awareness, self-concept self-esteem and self-evaluation.
However, it is important to realize that all the areas of development link together.

What factors can affect children’s growth and development?

• A variety of factors influence child development: Hereditary and Environmental factors

• Heredity guides every aspect of physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and personality
development.
• Family members, Peer groups, the School environment, and the Community influence
how children think, socialize, and become self-aware.
• Biological factors such as nutrition, medical care, and
• Environmental hazards in the air and water affect the growth of the body and mind.
• Economic and Political institutions, the Media, and Cultural values all guide how
children live their lives.
• Critical life events, such as a family crisis or a national emergency, can alter the growth
of personality and identity.
• family background and structure, social economic status, cultural background, health
status, environment

1.4. Section Two: Significant Facts and principles about Child development

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 Reflective Activity
Can you list or think about any facts related to human development?

We have previously seen that development is a product of growth, maturation and learning. As human
development is based on certain facts, we shall discuss them in this section. Even though different
developmental psychologists state different but interrelated sets of facts for child development, in this
section, we will discuss the following significant facts governing child development.

1.4.1. Development is a Continues process

Development is a continuous process starting from conception to death but the continuous
process is not usually smooth and gradual. For example unexpected increment of weight and
height could take place. In the early years of life, development consists of changes that lead the
child to maturity not only of body size and functioning, but also of behavior. Even after maturity
has been attained, development doesn’t end. Changes continue which lead to the period of life
known as old age. These changes continue until death ends the life cycle.

1.4.2. Development follows an orderly sequence

Development follows definite and predictable pattern, order, sequence or direction.

Though individuals differ in rate of growth and development but even then the development
follows an orderly sequence in all individuals and shows high degree of similarity in the
order in which various developmental changes appear. Most psychologists agree that
development is sequential or orderly. Psychologists have reported several directional trends
in development. Following are the main trends:

A. The Cephalocaudal principle (from head to foot): This principle describes the
direction of growth and development. Development proceeds from the head (cephalo) to the
tail (caudal) region. It is responsible for height increment. As such, it states that
development proceeds from the head downward. According to this principle, the head of
the fetus is well-developed before its legs assume their final form and even after birth head
develops in advance of the lower parts of the body. In other words, the child gains control

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of the head first, then the arms, and then the legs. Coordination of arms always precedes
coordination of legs for every infant

B. The proximodistal principle (from the central axis to the extremities of the body) :
This principle also describes the direction of development. As such it states that
development starts from the central line of the body to the outer parts, more distant from it.
It states development spreads outward from the central axis of the body to the extremities. It
is responsible for Weight increment. This means that the spinal cord develops before outer
parts of the body. The child’s arms develop before the hands and the hands and feet
develop before the fingers and toes. Finger and toe muscles are the last to develop in
physical development.

C. Locomotion: Locomotion develops in a sequence in all infants of different cultures of

the world. The sequence is creeping, crawling, standing and walking. The time may vary
in the development of locomotion, but every infant passes through these stages

All children follow a development pattern with one stage leading to the next. Infants stand
before they walk; draw circles before they make squares. Even though development is
continuous, there is evidence that at different ages certain characteristics stand out more
visibly than others. Since development is continuous, what happens at one stage influences
the following stages.
1.4.3. Development proceeds from generality to specific

Development proceeds from general to specific. In all areas of development, general activity
always precedes specific activity. For example, the fetus moves its whole body but is
incapable of making specific responses. In early postnatal life, infants wave their arms
randomly. They can make such specific responses as reaching out for an object near them.
In language, from genetic sounds emerge words and then specific sentences with meaning.
With respect to emotional behavior, infants approach strange and unusual objects with some
sort of a general fear response. Later, their fears become more specific and elicit different
kinds of behavior, such as crying, turning away and hiding or pretending to be not afraid.

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It also states that people get more and more specific in their behavior with age. In all types of
development, we find the principle of mass differentiation and integration. Out of mass and
undifferentiated emerge more differentiated, refined behavior and goal-directed response. You
can consider any developmental process, and find that this principle applies. For instance,
language development of the child begins from the birth cry, as a mass, undifferentiated
response.

1.4.4. Different aspect of development are interrelated

Various developmental aspects are interdependent. For instance, children’s early aspects of

physical developments have an interwoven relation with social and cognitive development.
Development in one domain influences and is influenced by development in other domains.
1.4.5. Development is individualized process

There are individual differences in development. This is to mean the rates of development vary
from individual to individual. Every individual has his/her own rate of physical, mental,
emotional and social development. The point that you should remember here is that all these
changes in individuals are not uniform. These changes occur at different rates. Not all parts of
the body grow at the same rate, nor do all aspects of mental growth proceed equally.

At birth, the different parts of the body vary in relation to one another. If the body is to attain
adult proportions, inequalities in growth must take place. The different phases of mental and
physical growth occur at their own individual rates and reach maturity at different’ times. In
some areas of the body the growth may' be rapid, while in others, the growth may be slow or
even interrupted by intermittent pause. Thus, the pattern of relative size of the organs of the boy
changes from time to time.

1.4.6. Development proceeds from the simple to the more complex

It states that human beings are more and complex in their behavior with age. Children use their
cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. For example, learning relationships
between things (how things are similar), or classification, is an important ability in cognitive

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development. The cognitive process of learning how an apple and orange are alike begins with
the most simplistic or concrete thought of describing the two. Seeing no relationship, a preschool
child will describe the objects according to some property of the object, such as color. Such a
response would be, an apple is red (or green) and an orange is orange.

The first level of thinking about how objects are alike is to give a description or functional
relationship (both concrete thoughts) between the two objects. An apple and orange are round
and an apple and orange are alike because you eat them are typical responses of three, four and
five year olds. As children develop further in cognitive skills, they are able to understand a
higher and more complex relationship between objects and things; that is, that an apple and
orange exist in a class called fruit. The child cognitively is then capable of classification.

1.4.7. Development is the result of interaction

Development is a process resultant from a constant flux or interchange of energy within an

organism and its environment. Heredity forces inherent in the genetic constitution of the
individual and environmental forces influence the development of the organism.

1.4.8. Development is cumulative (product of long process)

Development is a cumulative process. Certain changes impress the observer with their dramatic
suddenness but actually these changes do not emerge all of a sudden. The child’s first word, first
steps are result of cumulative progress for the child has continuously been preparing for these
functions. Then, each change is the culmination of the individual’s prior growth and experience.

1.4.9. Rates of development differ in male and female child

The tempo of development is not even. Individuals differ in the rate of growth and
development. Boys and girls have different development rates. Each part of the body has its
own particular rate of growth. Development does not occur at an even pace. There are
periods of great intensity and equilibrium and there are periods of imbalance. Development
achieves a plateau and this may occur at any level or between levels. Developmental
changes do not always go forward in a straight line.

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While the development of different physical and mental traits is continuous, it is never
uniform. Since the body has to attain its adult proportions, inequalities in rates occur. The
feet, hands and nose, for example, reach maximum development early in adolescence, while
the lower part of the face and the shoulders develop more slowly. Mental abilities like
verbal, numerical, spatial, etc. develop at different ages. Creative imagination develops
rapidly in childhood and reaches its peak in early adolescence. Reasoning develops slowly.
Rote memory and memory for concrete objects and facts develop more quickly than
memory for the abstract. The point that you should remember here is that all these changes
in individuals are not uniform. These changes occur at different rates.
10. Development depends on growth, maturation &learning: Development is a synthesis of
growth, maturation and learning

11 Childhood is the foundation stage in life: This principle states that early foundations are
critical. Early periods are more critical to set personal and social adjustments. That is, attitudes,
habits and patterns of behavior that are established during childhood are likely to determine how
successfully individuals adjust to life as they grow older.

12. Development involves change. States that development involves either quantitative or
qualitative change.

13) Development is shared by its historical (cultural contexts)- It states that Development is
affected by social and cultural contexts.

To sum up the above, in this section we discussed about continuity, sequentially differentially
and generality to specificity etc. Besides, we have explored how development is dependent on
the role played by maturation and learning. This signals that teachers needs to understand the
implications of this principles in developing classroom instruction, in adapting textbooks and
promoting child welfare. A school teacher needs to keep in mind these facts in devising effective
child support mechanisms to assist the child develop physically, cognitively, socio-emotionally,
linguistically and etc.

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Controversial Issues in Child Development:

-Are today’s key Issues and Questions that underlying themes of Child Development’s

The most important debating issues in the study of children’s development include nurture and
nature, continuity and discontinuity, and stability and change.

1. Nature and Nurture

The nature nurture issue involves the debate about the extent to which development is influenced
by nature and by nurture. Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to its
environmental experiences.

2. Continuity and Discontinuity

The continuity-discontinuity issue focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual,
cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).

3. Stability and change

The stability –change issue involves the debate about the degree to which early traits and
characteristics persist through life or change. Many develop mentalists who emphasize stability
are the result of heredity and possibly early experience in life. Develop mentalists who
emphasize change take the more optimistic view that later experiences can produce change.
Recall that in the life-span perspective, plasticity the potential for change exists throughout the
life-span.

The roles of early and late experience are an aspect of the stability-change issue that has long
been hotly debated. The early-later experience issue focuses on the degree to which early-
experience (especially in infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of the child’s
development.

Evaluating the Developmental issues

It is important to keep in mind that most-life-span develop mentalists do not take extreme
positions on the three developmental issues. They acknowledge that development is not all

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nature or all nurture, not all stability or all change, and not all continuity or all discontinuity but
characterize development throughout the human lifespan.

1.5. Section Three: Stages of Human Development and Developmental Tasks

Moreover, for the purposes of organization and understanding, we commonly describe
development in terms of periods. Development proceeds through different phases which exhibit
typical patterns. Across the life-span, we develop in stages. These stages are broad patterns of
development characterized by some dominant features. In each stage of development a person
shows typical capabilities, patterns of behaviour and characteristic modes of functioning. These,
in turn, make the person ready to face typical challenges and events in life. In the most widely
used system of classification, the developmental periods are categorized in to two: those are
prenatal development and post-natal development.

Some of the important features of stages are as follows.

 Each stage of life is based on the developments up to the previous stage and is also a
preparation for the next phase of life. Thus, each stage shows consolidation of previous
developmental changes and a preparation for development during the future stages of life.
 Within a person, the rate of development varies from one stage to another. For example,
growth of brain cells & physical motor skills are much faster during infancy compared to
adulthood.
 There are variations between individuals in the rate of their development and progression
from one stage to another. Thus, the time or chronological age of transition from one stage of
development to another may vary from person to person.
• Lifespan development has two major phases: prenatal and postnatal
• Prenatal development is the period of development from conception to birth.
• Postnatal development is the time of development from birth to death
Developmental task is a term used to refer to age-related customs that replicate social outlook
for normal development. They can also be defined as skills that a person has to achieve during a
particular age.
1.5.1. Early childhood (Pre-school) tasks (birth – 6 years)
This period brings dramatic changes in the body and brain that support the emergence of a
wide array of motor, perceptual, and intellectual capacities; the beginnings of language; and

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first intimate ties to others. The body becomes longer and leaner, motor skills are refined,
and children become more self-controlled and self-sufficient.
Thought and language expand at an astounding pace, a sense of morality becomes evident,
and children establish ties with peers.

Developmental Tasks:
 Learning to walk, take solid foods, control body wastes, and developing
physiological stability depends on physical maturation.
 Learning to talk depends upon cognitive maturation, but hearing language from
others will play an important role.
 Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality relates to cognitive
development and the development of thinking.
 Learning sex differences and sexual modesty is the beginning of sex role
identification.
 Learning to relate oneself emotionally to parents, siblings, and other people is
accomplished largely by modeling the behaviors of others. Thus, parents see and
hear their children reflecting their behaviors.
 Learning to distinguish right and wrong and developing a conscience is the
beginning of social development and responsibility.

1.5.2. Middle childhood (elementary school) tasks (6 – 12 years)

Children learn about the wider world and master new responsibilities that increasingly resemble those
they will perform as adults. Improved athletic abilities, participation in organized games with rules, more
logical thought processes, mastery of basic literacy skills, and advances in self-understanding, morality,
and friendship are hallmarks of this period.

Developmental Tasks:

 Building wholesome attitudes toward self is extremely important in all aspects of

learning. The teacher must do what is possible to enhance a learner’s self-image.
 Learning physical skills enables the child to develop muscular control and play games.
 Learning to get along with peers marks the continuation of social development.

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 Relationships with others need to be enhanced.
 Developing fundamental skills, such as reading, writing, and calculating form the basis of
major cognitive skills and are viewed as the basic goal of school and of primary
education.
 Developing attitudes towards social groups are influenced by interacting with others at
school and in the community.
 Learning an appropriate masculine and feminine role is accomplished largely by
modeling the behavior of important individuals in the child’s life.
 Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values.

 Achieving personal independence involves allowing the child to make decisions, within
reason, independently.

Ultimately, there are various goals associated to be achieved by studying child development.
Vasta et al. (1998) indicated the following goals of studying about child development:

 To understand the complexities of human nature and the processes and

conditions under which human beings, from infancy into adulthood and
beyond, learn to become mature human beings who fulfill their individual
potential, live in service to their community, and exercise loving stewardship
over the environment.
 To describe the behavior at each point in the person's development—such as
determining the age that babies begin to walk, the social skills of four year
olds, and so forth.
 To identify the causal factors involved in producing changes in behavior—such
as the importance of genetic or biological factors, the role of various
experiences, and the influence of peers, parents, and others.
 To describe, explain, predict, and modify development and developmental
tasks.
 To gain deep knowledge of the complex interaction among developmental
domains and the role of environmental factors.
 To better identify, interpret, and respond to a child’s individual differences

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  To respond effectively to the needs, challenges, and capacities of children and
their families, helping them get the best start in life.
 To devise effective child support mechanisms in schools and classrooms.

CHAPTER TWO: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Brainstorming Activity
1. What kind of theories do you know so far?
2. What do they do? What purpose they serve?

Research on child development is a relatively recent endeavor. It did not begin until the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Nevertheless, ideas about how children grow and
change have existed for centuries. As these thoughts combined with research, they inspired the
construction of theories of development.

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Theories are explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, providing a
framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts or principles
(Feldman, 2009). For example, a good theory of infant–caregiver attachment would:

1) .Describe the behaviors of babies around 6 to 8 months of age as they seek the affection and
comfort of a familiar adult,
2).Explain how and why infants develop this strong desire to bond with a caregiver, and
3).Predict the consequences of this emotional bond for future relationships.
Theories are vital tools for two reasons.

First, they provide organizing frameworks for our observations of children. In other words, they
guide and give meaning to what we see.
Second, theories that are verified by research often serve as a sound basis for practical action.
Once a theory helps us understand development, we are in a much better position to know how
to improve the welfare and treatment of children.
Because of controversies about human development, there are different theories of child
development. This unit discusses only the major theories focusing on their central points and
basic assumptions about development and their implication to education.

Section one. Psychodynamic Theories of Child Development

Psychodynamic theories are primarily concerned with the personality and emotional
development of individuals. Advocates of the psychodynamic perspective believe that much of
behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts of which a person has little
awareness or control. According to these groups of theories, the inner forces, which may stem
from one's childhood, continually influence behavior throughout the life span. The
psychoanalyst’s special province has been the inner world of feelings, impulses and fantasies.
The principal founder of psychoanalytic theory was Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalytic theory
describes development as primarily unconscious (beyond awareness) and colored by emotion.

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 Eriksen’s psychosocial theory of child development which emphasizes our social interaction
with other people and the environment in shaping our personality. Psychoanalytic theories focus
on developmental changes in the self and personality and consider development as a
discontinuous process that follows a series of separate five stages .At each stage of maturation,
certain drives, needs, or conflicts emerge that influence the way a child relates to the
environment.

Psychosocial theory, built upon Sigmund Freud’s work, identified eight separate stages across
the lifespan. It assumes that in each stage we face a crisis that needs to be resolved in order for us
to develop socially and emotionally. Each stage has a positive or negative outcome, though we
tend not to be at either end of the spectrum. The outcome of the stage is determined by our
environment, and the care giving strategies or experiences to which we are exposed.

1.1. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud's psychoanalytic theory viewed human development in terms of personality and emotional
changes and he suggested that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior.
Freud believed that behavior and personality are formed from the constant and unique interaction
of conflicting psychological forces that operate at three different levels of awareness: the
preconscious, the conscious, and the unconscious.

Freud's Three Levels of Mind

According to Freud, the mind can be divided into three different levels: the preconscious,
the conscious, and the unconscious.

1. The conscious mind includes everything that we are aware of. This is the aspect of our
mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. A part of this includes our
memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily at any
time and brought into our awareness. Freud called this the preconscious.
2. The preconscious mind is the part of the mind that represents ordinary memory. While
we are not consciously aware of this information at any given time, we can retrieve it
and pull it into consciousness when needed.

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3. The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, desires, and memories that outside
of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or
unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious
continues to influence our behavior and experience, even though we are unaware of these
underlying influences. Freud likened these three levels of mind to an iceberg.

The top of the iceberg that you can see above the water represents the conscious mind. The part
of the iceberg that is submerged below the water but is still visible is the preconscious. The
majority of the iceberg lies unseen beneath the waterline and represents the unconscious. Each
person also possesses a certain amount of psychological energy that forms the three basic
structures of personality: the id, the ego, and the superego. These three structures have different
roles and operate at different levels of the mind.

Basic Assumption of psychoanalytic theory

The assumptions of Freud’s theory can be generalized in the following two areas:
I. Determinates of personality a) Psychic determinism - much of our behavior is not chosen
freely rather it is determined by the nature and strength of intra-psychic forces (id, ego,
superego).
b) Unconscious motivation - The basic and true motives of our actions are largely unknown to
us /with out awareness).
c) Early child hood experience determines later personality. - Whoever one dose as an adult is

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the reflection of one's experience at early years of life.
II. Nature of mankind - according to him man by nature selfish, irrational and destructive of
self and others. Human beings have two basic instincts. These are:
 Life instincts (Eros) -These are life sustaining instincts. -Are largely sexual impulses and
includes all positive biological desires.
 Death instincts (Thanatos) -These are largely aggressive impulses.
 Freud say human beings are basically irrational and have the desire to die,
which call it death wish.
 Human beings are selfish who always strive for the satisfaction of their
biological & instinctual impulses.

The major aspects of psychoanalytic theory

1. Structure of personality

As the child develops the psychic energy is divided in to three components of personality. These
are id, ego& super ego. According to Freud, everyone's personality has three aspects: id, ego,
and superego. The id is the raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth.
It represents primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. The id
operates according to the pleasure principle, in which the goal is to maximize satisfaction and
reduce tension.

The superego represents a person's conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and
wrong. It represents the social, cultural, religious and moral issues that are learned from an
individual's parents, teachers, and other significant figures. The superego operates under
perfection principle.

The ego is the part of personality that is rational and reasonable. The ego acts as a buffer
between the real world outside of us and the primitive id. The ego operates on the reality
principle, in which instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain the safety of the
individual and help integrate the person into society. It understands that biological desires of the

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id must be satisfied so that the person can survive but they should be satisfied not in immoral
ways but in ways the superego may not be endangered.

2. Psychosexual stages of development

In addition to providing an account of the various parts of the personality, Freud also suggested
the ways in which personality develops during childhood. He argued that psychosexual
development occurs as children pass through a series of stages in which pleasure, or
gratification, is focused on a particular biological function and body part. Human beings are
pleasure seeking. He suggested that pleasure shifts from the mouth (the oral stage) to the anus
(the anal stage) and eventually to the genitals (the phallic stage and the genital stage).

There are five psychosexual stages of development and the psychic energy of sex instincts,
which is called "libido" shifts from one part of the body to another to satisfy different biological
needs.

I) Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months). During the oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures
(sucking). At birth, the oral region is very sensitive to any kind of stimulation. However, Freud
noted that too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation (Fixation is behavior
reflecting an earlier stage of development due to an unresolved conflict) or Oral Personality
which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities.

This type of personality may have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eating,
biting his or her nails, etc. Personality wise, these individuals may become overly dependent
upon others, susceptible, and perpetual followers. On the other hand, they may also fight these
urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward others.

II).Anal Stage (18 months to three years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on
eliminating and retaining feces. Society’s pressure, mainly parents, the child has to learn to
control anal stimulation. Anal fixation during this stage can result in an obsession with
cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive). On the opposite end of the spectrum, they
may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive).

III).Phallic Stage (ages three to six). During this stage, the pleasure zone (what is also called
the erogenous zone) switches to the genitals. Freud believed that during this stage boys develop

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unconscious sexual desires for their mothers and girls go through a similar situation, developing
unconscious sexual attraction to their father. The boy becomes rival with his father and sees him
as competition for the mother’s affection. During this time, boys also develop a fear that their
father will punish them for these feelings, such as by castrating (losing testicles) them. This
group of feelings is known as Oedipus Complex (after the Greek Mythology figure who
accidentally killed his father and married his mother) and the Electra Complex for girls.

According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of his father, boys
eventually decide to identify with him rather than fight him. By identifying with his father, the
boy develops masculine characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses his sexual
feelings toward his mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both
overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.

IV. Latency Stage (age six to puberty). It is a time when sexual desires are directed to relevant
non sexual behaviors such as home/school related activities. It’s during this stage that sexual
urges remain repressed and children interact and play mostly with same sex peers.

V. Genital Stage (puberty on). The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start
of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned during the
previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex, with the primary focus of
pleasure is the genitals.

Implication of Freud’s Theory to Education

 Parents and teachers need to encourage the child develop the ego through understanding
child’s animalistic desires and the desire to become a social creature
 Parents and teachers should not excessively punish the child for expressing desires of the
flesh or they should not allow the child to forget social considerations to satisfy his/her
innate desires only
 Realizing the importance of satisfying both desires, parents and teachers should teach the
child how to reasonably satisfy biological and social needs.
 Freud’s theory helps to understand how important sexuality is in shaping personality.
 But some of its problems according to critics is the notion that people pass through stages

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 in childhood that determine their adult personalities has little definitive research support.
It also gives less attention to later experiences in shaping personality. Because much of
Freud's theory was based on a limited population its application to broad, multicultural
populations is questionable. Because Freud's theory focuses primarily on sexual and
biological needs neglecting other equally important forces such as social and
environmental
1.2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of development

It is an alternative psychodynamic view in his theory of psychosocial development, which

emphasizes our social interaction with other people. In Erikson's view, society and culture both
challenge and shape us. Psychosocial development encompasses changes in our interactions
with and understanding of one another as well as in our knowledge and understanding of
ourselves as members of society (Erikson, 1963). Since his theory integrates personal, emotional
and social development, it is often called psychosocial theory. He partitioned the life Span in to
eight stages each characterized by a psychosocial crisis.
Basic Assumptions

a) Personality development is the product of the interaction of our body and the environment
b) Personality development is a continuous process of change of our body and that of the
environment and takes different forms continuously because of the interaction
c) Personality development is a process of facing and successfully resolving the various
developmental crises that emerge at different periods in our life.

Erickson’s theory differs from that of Freud’s in the following points.

 Erikson emphasized psychosocial development than psychosexual development

 Erickson believed that developmental changes occur throughout the lifespan as opposed to
Freud who believed that our basic personality is shaped in the first five years.
 Erickson suggests eight stages of development
 Erickson emphasized ego’s struggle for identity over the id’s influence on personality

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 The struggle of the ego is related more to the conflicts between the interest of the individual
and the society rather than internal conflicts of the id, ego and the superego

The stages that make up his theory are as follows:

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18 months to three years)
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five)
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11)
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18)
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40)
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65)
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death)

Stage 1. Trust versus mistrust (Birth – 1 year): Children who are loved and cared, whose
needs are satisfied will develop a sense of trust. A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical
comfort and a minimal amount of fear and apprehension about the future. Trust in infancy sets
the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live.
Children who are not cared who are deprived only know pain and suffering in the hands of their
care givers, as a result develop mistrust. This individual in the long run are unable to love or
form meaningful relationship
Stage 2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1 – 3 years): After gaining trust in their
caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They start to assert their
sense of independence, or autonomy. They realize their will. Because of new physical
development the infants would insist to do things by themselves and assert their own freedom.
They are highly negativists. Children who are supported and given direction would develop a
sense of autonomy. If infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to
develop a sense of shame and doubt.
Stage 3. Initiative versus guilt (3- 6 years): As preschool children encounter a widening social
world; they are challenged more than when they were infants. They are imaginative enough to
take a lot of initiatives to play adult roles. Children cognitive ability promotes through questions

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and requests. Here the parents’ and teachers’ reaction to them (given direction, freedom etc) can
create in them a strong sense of initiative (a desire to explore and to learn new things). If adults
suppress, control, or ridicule the children’s attempts to explore and take risks, they will react by
developing feelings of guilt.
Stage 4. Industry versus inferiority (6-11 years): This developmental stage occurs
approximately in the elementary school years. Children’s initiative brings them in contact with a
wealth of new experience. In any society this is a period when children would learn how to do
things. At this stage is school age, children have to master academic tasks, to get along with
others, and of follow the rules of the classroom. Then children who succeed at these
developmental tasks develop a sense of industry or competence. Children who fail at these tasks
acquire a sense of inferiority or beliefs and expectations that they can’t do anything right, feeling
incompetent and unproductive. Erikson believed that teachers have a special responsibility for
children’s development of industry.

Stage5. Identity versus Identity Confusion (11-18 years): This stage of development
corresponds to adolescent years. At this time, individuals are faced with finding out who they
‘’’’are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. So, the adolescent explores and
would struggle to find the answer. If he/she is successful a positive identity will be achieved.
The failure would lead to a crisis in one’s identity (role confusion).
Stage 6. Intimacy versus isolation (18-35 years): During the early adulthood years, individuals
face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships with others. Erikson describes
intimacy as finding oneself yet losing oneself in another. If the young adult forms healthy
friendships and an intimate relationship with another individual, intimacy will be achieved; if
not, isolation will result.

Stage 7. Generativity versus stagnation (35-60 years): During middle adulthood a chief
concern is to assist the younger generation in developing and leading useful lives-this is what
Erikson means by generativity. The feeling of having done nothing to help the next generation is
stagnation
Stage 8. Integrity versus Despair (Over 60 years): In Erikson’s final stage of development,
which individuals experience in late adulthood; the individual will evaluate, assess the life he/she
lived. As older people face death, they engage in what has been called a life review. They look

31
back on their lives and wonder whether they were worthwhile. If the person will feel a sense of
satisfaction, integrity will be achieved; but if the older person feels that life was not what it
should have been, but now, time has run out and there is no chance to try alternative life styles,
then they confront the ultimate despair. That is the retrospective glances likely yield doubt or
gloom.

Section Two: Cognitive Theories of Development

Cognitive theorists focus on the ways children construct their own understandings of their
environment. Psychoanalytic theories stress the importance of children’s unconscious thoughts;

32
but cognitive theories emphasize their conscious thoughts. Development occurs through the
interplay between a child’s emerging mental capabilities and his or her environmental
experiences. This perspective focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand,
and think about the world. It therefore, emphasizes on how people internally represent and think
about the world. There are a number of different cognitive theories of development.

2.1. Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development

Piaget proposed that children pass through an invariant sequence of stages, each characterized by
qualitatively different ways of organizing information and learning about the world. According
to Piaget, development is a qualitative change in the mind or knowledge or intelligence of people
from age to age. He defined knowledge as the underlying cognitive structure that guides the
thinking and behavior of children. The basic assumption of this theory is that development is a
qualitative change in mind or knowledge of a person from age to age. And knowledge, according
to Piaget, is our own construction and is not just poured from the environment. Piaget believes
that everybody makes his/her own knowledge.

Key concepts in Piaget’s Theory

A. Cognitive Structure – is a psychological unit of the mind that enables us to think and know.
Our cognitive structures develop because of two psychological mechanisms- adaptation and
organization.

B. Adaptation – consists of two processes called assimilation and accommodation

 Assimilation – refers to how human beings take things into their minds. It is the process of
taking objects, concepts, and events and changing them to fit to the already existing mental
structures. Assimilation occurs when children incorporate new information into their existing
knowledge. It is the process of incorporating objects, concepts and events into our mental
structure changing them to fit those structures.
 Accommodation: occurs when the existing schema is altered or modified to handle a new
experience. Accommodation refers to adjustments and modifications of the individual to real
situations.

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Both assimilation and accommodation maintain or restore cognitive balance. Piaget called this
cognitive balance equilibration. By the process of equilibration, according to him, the child
maintains a balance between him/herself and the changing environment. The shift from one
stage of thought to the next occurs as children experience cognitive conflict or disequilibrium in
trying to understand the world. Eventually, the child resolves the conflict and reaches a balance,
or equilibrium of thought.
C. Organization: Organization is Piaget’s concept of grouping isolated behaviors into a high-
order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system. It also refers to the connections among
cognitive structures. Organization and adaptation are inseparable; rather they are two
complementary processes of a single mechanism. The mind does not consist of random sets of
ideas rather a set of organized ideas. These organized patterns of thought and action are referred
to as schemas. For example the grasping scheme, the sucking scheme, the kicking scheme, the
throwing scheme.
Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development
1. Sensory-motor stage (birth-2 years): In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the
world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric
actions –hence the term sensory-motor. Babies organize their physical action schemes, such as
sucking, grasping and hitting for dealing with the immediate world
Key accomplishments during sensors-motor stage
 Learning to coordinate sensation and types of physical schemata
 Becoming more object-oriented or focusing on the world
 Development of object permanence
Babies in this stage are initially egocentric – entirely centered on the self and unaware of the
existence of other viewpoints. Before the age of six months, babies believe that “out of sight is
out of mind”. But afterwards, they develop object permanence – a belief that objects out of sight
still exist – and thus they continue to search for them. Babies during this stage begin to
distinguish their own actions as causes – a phenomenon called causality. By moving from object
to object, babies learn about space and time that takes to move from one object to the others.

Babies progress from reliance on reflexes (such as sucking and grasping) to a basic
understanding of the world around them, (such as pleasant and unpleasant) of the ability to
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represent the world through language. Object permanence is a Piagetian term that denotes the
understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen,
heard, or touched.
2. The preoperational stage (2 – 7 Years): In this stage, children begin to represent the world
with word, images, and drawings. Symbolic thought goes beyond simple connections of sensory
information and physical action. Children learn to think to use symbols and internal images-but
their thinking is unsystematic and illogical.
Key accomplishments of preoperational stage

 Development of symbolic thought

 Development of Intuitive thought
This refers to the use of primitive reasoning and wanting to know the answers to all sorts of
questions; children of this stage seem to be sure about their knowledge and understanding, yet
they are so unaware of how they know, what they knew (know it without the use of rational
thinking).
 Realism: Refers to the ability to slowly distinguish and accept a real world. Piaget believed
that preoperational children initially confuse internal and external; they confuse thought and
matter. The confusion disappears at about age7.
 Animism: refers to a child’s tendency to consider a large number of objects as a live and
conscious.
 Artificialism: refers to the assumption that everything is the product of human creation.
 Transductive Reasoning – children at this stage use neither deductive nor inductive but
reasoning from particular to particular e.g. the sun will not fall down because it is hot, the sun
stops there because it is yellow.
Limitation of Preoperational stage

 Egocentrism; it is inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s
perspective. That is things are what they want them to be; other opinions are meaningless.
Centration; refers to concentrating on only one part of an object or activity. Children of this
stage ignore the relationships among the various parts and focus their attention on one
characteristic to the exclusion of all others
 Irreversibility: is the inability to reverse one’s thinking.

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 3. The concrete operational stage (7 – 11 years): In this stage, children can perform operations,
and logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or
concrete examples. Children develop the capacity to think systematically, but only when they
can refer to concrete objectives and activities
Key accomplishments of concrete operational stage

i. Decentraton: this is the ability to consider several important features of a task rather than focus
their thinking on the perceptually more obvious one.
ii. Reversibility: this is the ability to mentally go through the series of steps it takes to solve a
problem and then reverse their thinking and return to the starting point
iii. Conservation: this is the ability to understand that objects remain the same in fundamental ways
regardless of changes in shape or arrangement. It also refers to the realization that the essence of
something remains constant although surface features may change. Children of this stage use three
arguments to conserve: a) the argument of identity – it is the still the same thing, (b) the argument of
reversibility – you will find the same if you reverse it, and (c) the argument of compensation – the width is
compensated by height and is still the same.
iv. Classification: concrete operational children can flexibly group and regroup objects into
hierarchies of classes and subclasses. It is the ability to group objects with some similarities
within a large category.
v. Serration: it is the ability to arrange objects according to some characteristics such as size,
height, weight, age etc. is the ability to arrange objects by increasing or decreasing size. Children
of this stage can arrange things in ascending or descending order.
vi. Number concept – refers to the children’s understanding of the meaning of numbers or “the
oneness of one”. That is children of this stage will understand one boy, one girl, one apple, one
orange are all one of something

4. The formal operational stage (11 – adulthood): In this stage, individuals move beyond
concrete experiences and think in abstract and more logical terms. As part of thinking more
abstractly, adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances.
Key Accomplishments of formal operational stage

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i. Propositional thought: Adolescents develop the ability to ask “if then” questions. These
skills allow adolescents to think about not just actual happenings but possible ones.
ii. Hypothetical deductive reasoning: this is the ability to develop hypothesis, or best guesses,
about ways to solve problems, and then systematical deduce, or conclude, which is the best path
to follow in solving problems.
Iii. Understanding of possibility – adolescents are able to separate the real from the possible

Educational implications of Piaget’s cognitive theory

Authentic learning happens through spontaneous inventions and discovery. Instruction should be
geared to child’s particular level. Learning should be a process of active discovery and should
consider the child’s developmental ages

The following statements explore some of the possible applications of his theory to classroom.

 You need to establish the developmental level of your children from the onset in order to
know the area of emphasis in your teaching. Children who are in the concrete
operational stage will need tangible objects to manipulate. The objects will help them to
understand concepts faster.
 Be conscious of the fact that both the language of children and their thought processes
are not as fully developed as those of adults. Therefore, provide simple explanations and
illustrative materials in your lessons.
 You need to build on the experiences children already have. Your instructions should be
logically sequenced. As you deliver your lessons, start from the known and go to the
unknown.
Test understanding throughout your lesson by asking questions. Wrong answers should be used
as clues to the level of thinking the child is capable of. Social interaction should be encouraged
because this type of activity helps children to overcome egocentrism.

2.2 .Lev. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Development

Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed a theory of cognitive development known as
the Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development in the early twentieth century. The main
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assertion of the Vygotsky theory is that the cognitive development of children is advanced
through social interaction with other people, particularly those who are more skilled. In other
words, Vygotsky believed that social learning comes before cognitive development, and that
children construct knowledge actively. Sociocultural theory is an emerging theory in psychology
that looks at the important contributions that society makes to individual development. This
theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live.
Sociocultural theory also suggests that human learning is largely a social process.

Key Principles:
 Society and culture of the children plays a vital role in the development of their cognition.
 Sign system or the language of the society works as a tool in gaining knowledge.

 Inputs from others and especially from more knowledgeable people and adults have the
capacity to affect the development of cognition.
Central Concepts
More Knowledgeable Others (MKO): According to Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive
development, children learn through social interaction that includes collaborative and
cooperative dialogue with someone who is more skilled in tasks they’re trying to learn. Vygotsky
called these people with higher skill level the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). They could
be teachers, parents, tutors and even peers. In our example of a five-year-old girl learning to ride
a bike, her grandfather not only holds onto the back of the bike, but also verbally teaches the
little girl how to balance her bike. From the little girl’s point of view, her grandfather is a More
Knowledgeable Other.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): It is the key feature of the Vygotsky’s theory. The
concept of MKO is closely related to ZPD. According to Vygotsky, ZPD is the difference
between the present level of development attained without anyone’s assistance and potential
level of development which can be attained under the guidance of MKO. However, the level of
provided knowledge should be appropriate according to the child’s comprehensive ability.
E.g. a five-year-old child knows how to ride a tricycle. However, she can’t ride a bicycle (with
two wheels) without his grandfather holding onto the back of her bike. With his grandfather’s
help, this little girl learns to balance her bike. With some more practice, she can ride the bike on

38
her own. In this scenario, we can say that the child is in the zone of proximal development for
riding a bike.
Scaffolding: Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding is closely related to the concept of the Zone of
Proximal Development. Scaffolding refers to the temporary support given to a child by a More
Knowledgeable Other that enables the child to perform a task until such time that the child can
perform this task independently. Scaffolding entails changing the quality and quantity of support
provided to a child in the course of a teaching session. The MKO adjusts the level of guidance in
order to fit the student’s current level of performance.
For novel tasks, the MKO may utilize direct instruction. As the child gains more familiarity with
the task and becomes more skilled at it, the MKO may then provide less guidance.
In the example of the five-year-old learning to ride a bike, her grandfather (MKO) may begin by
holding onto the back of her bike the whole time that she is on the bike. As the little girl gains
more experience, her grandfather may release his hold intermittently. Eventually the girl’s
grandfather only grabs the bike when he needs to correct her balance. When the girl finally
masters the skill, her grandfather no longer needs to hold onto her bike anymore. In other words,
the scaffolds can be removed.
A major contribution of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development is the
acknowledgement of the social component in both cognitive and psychosocial development. Due
to his proffered ideas, research attention has been shifted from the individual onto larger
interactional units such as parent and child, teacher and student, brother and sister, etc.

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 Section Three: Theories of Moral Development
3.1. Piaget’s Stage Theory of Moral development
Moral development refers to the process through which children develop the standards of right
and wrong within their society, based on social and cultural norms, and laws. Piaget
conceptualizes moral development as a constructivist process, whereby the interplay of action
and thought builds moral concepts. Piaget (1932) was principally interested not in what children
do (i.e., in whether they break rules or not) but in what they think. In other words he was
interested in children’s moral reasoning.

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According to Piaget, the basis of children’s reasoning and judgment about rules and punishment
changes as they get older. Just as there are universal stages in children’s cognitive development,
there are stages in their moral development. Piaget devised experiments to study children’s
perceptions of right and wrong. Part of his research included the telling of a story about
something another child did, like breaking a jar of cookies. Then, he would ask children whether
they thought that action was right or wrong. He wanted to know the logic behind their moral
reasoning.

He found that while young children were focused on authority, with age they became
increasingly autonomous and able to evaluate actions from a set of independent principles of
morality. Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development described two stages of moral development:
heteronomous morality and autonomous morality.

A. Heteronomous morality

The stage of heteronomous morality, also known as moral realism or other-directed morality is
typical of children between the ages of 5 and 10. Younger children’s thinking is based on the
results of their actions and the way these actions affect them. The outcome is more important
than the intention. A behavior is judged as either good or bad only in terms of consequences.
There is no room for negotiation or compromise. Eating one cookie from the jar because a child
is hungry is just as wrong as stealing all the cookies from the jar by a naughty child. Taking
cookies is forbidden and therefore always wrong, regardless of the intention.

In middle childhood, children typically believe in the sanctity of rules. Rules are made by an
authority figure, such as a parent or teacher. These rules must be followed and cannot be
changed, they are absolute and unbreakable. At this stage, children’s firm belief that they must
follow the rules is based upon their understanding of the consequences. Not following the rules
will lead to negative outcomes. Most younger children will obey the rules simply in order to
avoid punishment. Even when completely alone, a child who breaks a rule takes the forbidden
cookie from the cookie jar, for example—will expect to be punished. The physical presence of
an authority figure has no importance because morality is imposed from the outside. But as they
develop and mature, children move to a higher level of morality.

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B. Autonomous morality

The stage of autonomous morality, also known as moral relativism or morality of cooperation is
typical of children from the age of 10 and continues through adolescence. Children are now
beginning to overcome the egocentrism of middle childhood. Their appreciation of morality
changes as a result of their newly acquired ability to view situations from other people’s
perspectives. They are, therefore, also capable of considering rules from someone else’s point of
view. Moral rules are not perceived as being absolute anymore. Instead, older children realize
that rules are socially agreed-upon guidelines. They are designed to benefit all the group
members and are adjustable.

Older children can assess whether a rule is fair or not. Although they still know that it is
important to follow the rules, they see them as complex and flexible. They are willing to
negotiate and suggest rule modifications. For instance, while playing a board game, older
children may want to implement their own rules or change the ones they find unfair. As they get
older, children begin to understand that the motives behind actions are as important as
consequences. Their choice to follow the rules is no longer based on the fear of negative
outcomes but on a more complex moral reasoning. During this stage, children recognize that
there is no absolute right or wrong and that morality depends on intentions rather than
consequences.

How Children Understand the Rules

Another way that Piaget observed children’s morality is by having them play games, including
marbles and a form of hide-and-seek. Critical to the choices made in these games was the
understanding of the rules. In addition to general stages of moral development, Piaget
created four stages in which the child understood rules:

 Motor Rules
 Egocentric
 Incipient Cooperation
 Genuine Cooperation

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Motor Rules

While the child is under the age of four, they are in the sensorimotor stage. At this point, they are
not grabbing the rules from the game unless they want to explore the feel of the paper. Children
in this stage are acting based on exploring their motor schemes and how they relate to the objects
of the game. Think about a toddler picking up a marble, putting it in their mouth, throwing it
across the room – they’re not doing it because it’s in the rules. They just want to explore.

Egocentric

Between the ages of 4-7, a child is in the preoperational stage. They are largely egocentric, and
their understanding of rules is egocentric, too. When a child is egocentric, they make up the
rules. A child playing with marbles, for example, may decide that all the marbles have to be
placed in a cup. They may fling the marbles at the cat. However, the game played is largely
created by the child themselves.

Incipient Cooperation

From the ages of 7-11, the child is in the concrete operational stage. Children are starting to see
the world from a more empathetic point of view. How they interact and communicate with other
players, however, varies. Some are cooperative while others want to play the game their way.
Children may sit and listen to the rules of the game, but they might not comprehend or decide to
play by them.

Genuine Cooperation

By age 12, when the child is in the formal operational stage, they begin to understand the rules.
What’s more, with this understanding comes an adoration for the rules. They start to abide by
them and want other children to do the same.

To sum up, Heteronomous Morality – 4 to 7 years – Initial stage of moral development – Rules
seen as invariant, unchangeable, and beyond child’s control and/or influence – Intentions not
considered – Believe in immanent justice (immediate punishment for infractions).Autonomous

43
cooperation stage – Beginning at 10 years – Become fully aware that rules may and can be
modified if people playing agree.

3.2. Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory Moral Development

Morality relates to the goodness or badness and correctness or wrongness of a certain behavior. It
is personal, subjective and therefore, lacks an absolute or universal truth. Morality has in general
three dimensions; Knowledge, Reasoning and behavior.

Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg modified and expanded Piaget's work to form a theory that
explained the development of moral reasoning. Piaget described a two-stage process of moral
development, while Kohlberg theory of moral development outlined six stages within three
different levels. Kohlberg extended Piaget’s theory, proposing that moral development is a
continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan.

Kohlberg's 3 levels and six stages

Level 1. Pre conventional Morality

Children at this stage may make moral decisions on the basis of self-interest or to avoid
punishment or to gain reward.

Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. This stage is common to young children of
around age 10, but adults are capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage children
follow and understand that rules and regulations are fixed and absolute. They restrict there view
on a track of respecting rules, because they believe that it is the only means to avoid punishment.

Stage [Link] and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one
right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different
viewpoints. What is right for an individual is what meets his/her own self-interests

Level II. Conventional Morality

Children at this level conform to the standard, expectation of the society (a desire to maintain
social order). Moral value resides in performing good and right roles.

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Stage 3. Good boy /good girl orientation. At this stage children—believe that helping someone
is good in general. They believe that people should live up to the expectations of the family and
community and behave in "good" ways. Good behavior means having good motives and
interpersonal feelings such as love, empathy, trust, and concern for others.

Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. Stage 3 reasoning works best in two-person
relationships with family members or close friends, where one can make a real effort to get to
know the other's feelings and needs and try to help. At stage 4, in contrast, the person becomes
more broadly concerned with society as a whole. Now the emphasis is on obeying laws,
respecting authority, and performing one's duties so that the social order is maintained.

Level III. Post conventional Morality

This is the highest level in Kohlberg’s theory of which a small number of people can reach.
Morality at this level is completely internalized and is not based on other’s standards.

Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. Stage 5 respondents basically believe that
a good society is best conceived as a social contract into which people freely enter to work
toward the benefit of all. They recognize that different social groups within a society will have
different values, but they believe that all rational people

Stage 6: Universal Principles. According people at this moral stage, the principles of
justice require treating the claims of all parties in an impartial manner, respecting the basic
dignity, of all people as individuals. The principles of justice are therefore universal; they
apply to all.
Section Four: Social - Emotional Development

Social emotional theories of help explain how children develop emotions, self-concept and
social behaviors, such as acts of helping and caring for others, aggressive tendencies, and
behaviors appropriate for their gender.

What is emotion for you? Emotions are part of our existence. It is difficult to define the term
‘emotions’, but we could define it by examining our reactions to stimuli that create emotions
such as anger, joy, sorrow, fear, hate and love (Farrant, 1988; Grusec, Lockhart and Waters,

45
1990). Emotional development should be concerned with the child’s increasing ability to
understand and control or express his or her reactions to stimuli.
The Effects of Emotional Arousal
Some emotional reactions are detectable by the observer, but others may remain hidden
within the individual. As a result of emotional experience, one may feel excited, depressed
or frightened. Grusec, Lockhart and Walters (1990: 216) identify ten internal adjustments
the body makes in reaction to arousal. Can you guess what they are? These adjustments can
happen automatically.
 Sweating: Grusec, Lockhart and Walters (1990) refer to sweating as a ‘lie detector’
because we may sweat when we are nervous or when some form of interrogation is
taking place. If we are composed and we are telling the truth, we do not generally sweat
unless our surroundings are hot or if we are ill.
 Pilomotor response. One’s hair feels like it is standing on end. This is usually a reaction
to fear.
 Skin temperature changes. These are not a direct result of arousal, but are caused by
changes in blood volume due to emotions such as fear or happiness.
 Circulatory system reaction. The rate at which the heart beats increases. This in turn
increases the blood pressure. Usually this reaction is caused by fear.
 Respiratory changes. Both the rate and depth of breathing are increased. The major
causes may be fear or excitement. Because respiration is increased, the blood circulation
is also accelerated.
 Internal reactions. Digestive processes become disturbed. Diarrhea and vomiting may
occur.
 Muscular effects. The tension in the skeletal part of the body increases. This usually
causes trembling due to great fear or great anger. The speed of eyelid movements may
also increase.

 Pupillary dilation. The iris diaphragm widens the pupil in the eye, allowing more light
to enter the eye. This reaction may be caused by excitement or anger.
 Salivary changes. The flow of saliva decreases and it gets thick, giving the feeling of a
dry mouth, which may cause swallowing problems.
 Blood chemistry effects. Blood sugar rises and a chemical called adrenaline is secreted

46
 into the blood stream. Adrenaline is a hormone that affects the circulatory and muscular
system. It makes these systems more active or excitable.
Sources of Emotions

Grusec, Lockhart and Walters (1990: 221) distinguish between innate and learned emotional
reactions. These types of emotion are examined below. After this presentation, we will discuss
the issue of whether the emotions are learned or not.

a) Innate Emotions
A child screams when frightened by a loud noise and clutches the mother affectionately if drawn
to her. Babies get annoyed if their mothers delay feeding them. These types of reactions have led
Grusec, Lockhart and Walters (1990) to conclude that emotions are inborn or innate. They occur
without any training taking place. Emotions such as love, fear, hate and anger are innate, but they
can also be learned if conditioning takes place.

b) Acquired Emotions
According to Grusec, Lockhart and Walters (1990: 223), Watson and Rayner conducted an
experiment in which a 1-year-old boy was exposed to a white rat. The boy did not express any
fear of the rat. The same white rat was then shown to the boy just as an iron bar behind the boy’s
head was hit, making a loud noise that frightened the boy. This process was repeated seven times
at regular intervals. After this, the sight of white rat alone was enough to arouse fear in the boy.
Although the method used would not be acceptable today, the experiment proved that emotions
could also be acquired. Emotions are innate. However, emotions can also result from learning.
Farrant (1980: 86) identifies three needs that should be addressed if the child’s emotions are to
develop normally. These are:

o an assurance of being loved,

o a sense of security, and

o An opportunity to form good personal relations.

Initially, it is the home environment that addresses these needs. The mother and family members
are the primary caregivers during the early stage of life. They provide love and a sense of
security. Later, the school plays the role of the parents. If the child’s emotional needs are not

47
met, then the child’s emotional development may be disturbed. Delinquent behavior may occur,
and the child may develop various forms of emotional disturbances.

4.2. Social Development and Self-Concept

The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1995) defines social as “concerning the
organization of and relations between people and communities”. With this definition in
mind, social development in children can be thought of as the changes in the child’s
relationship with people and communities that occur as the child grows up. Two major
aspects in social development of children need to be considered. These include the self-
concept and moral development.

Zindi, Peresu and Mpofu (1995: 94) define self-concept as an evaluated set of beliefs about
an individual. It is the self-picture, self-image, self-worth or self-acceptance. The self-
concept determines not only who you are, but what you are, what you think you can do and
what you think you can become.

Elements That Comprise the Self-Concept

The self-concept comprises a sense of belonging, of competence and of self-worth. These
elements are learned as a result of interaction with the environment and other people like
parents, teachers and peers. This group of people is sometimes referred to as significant
others. This is because they are very important for the healthy development of children’s
self-concept. They provide the necessary feedback to children as they indicate who they
really are, their social competencies, academic achievements and emotional balance.
Siblings (A sibling is one of two or more individuals having one or both parents in
common) and other people the children interact with also affect their self-concept.

Children who feel safe and appreciated are more likely to develop a positive self-concept.
They will establish feelings of acceptance. A positive self-concept raises a child’s self-
esteem. As you progress through the unit, you will come to appreciate the impact that self-
esteem has on achievement. Let us now look at some of the characteristics of self-concept
that were identified by Shavelson, Hubner and Stanton (1976, cited in Dembo, 1981).
 The self-concept is organized. Individuals collect a lot of information regarding

48
 perceptions they have about themselves. That information is organized into broad
categories.
 Multifaceted. The term ‘multi’ means many. The self-concept is multifaceted. It
cannot be simply categorized into areas such as social acceptance, physical
attractiveness and athletic and academic ability.
 The self-concept can be hierarchical, with some facets or parts of it occupying higher
positions than others.
 The self-concept is stable. The self-concept can, however, change in specific
situations. For example, if a good athlete fails in one sport, that athlete’s self- concept
will change in that one sport only. The general self-concept is not affected.
 The self-concept is developmental. As children grow, their self-concepts undergo
change. Children learn to regard themselves positively or negatively as they interact
with significant people in their lives, for example, parents, peers and teachers.

The self-concept is evaluative in nature. Individuals can look back at themselves and
analyze facets of their self-concept.

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 Chapter Three: Stages of Prenatal Development
Section One: The Prenatal Periods (from Conception to Birth)
For the purposes of organization and understanding, we commonly describe development in
terms of periods. Development proceeds through different phases which exhibit typical patterns.
Across the life-span, we develop in stages. These stages are broad patterns of development
characterized by some dominant features. In each stage of development a person shows typical
capabilities, patterns of behavior and characteristic modes of functioning. These, in turn, make
the person ready to face typical challenges and events in life. Developments in early childhood,
for example, prepare the child for formal education in case he can go to school.

In the most widely used system of classification, the developmental periods are infancy, early
childhood and late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late
adulthood. In the most widely used system of classification, the developmental periods are
categorized in to three: those are prenatal, peri- natal and post-natal development.

3.1. Stages of prenatal development

Life begins at conception, when a new organism is created with the mother’s ovum fertilized by
the father’s sperm. From that point till death, an individual keeps on growing and changing. Such
changes are not random but orderly and they generally follow a pattern. In this section, we will
examine the prenatal development comprising the germinal, embryonic and fetal stages. This 9-
month period is the most rapid time of change, during which a one-celled organism is
transformed into a human baby with remarkable capacities for adjusting to life in the surrounding
world.

The Beginning of life; the process of fertilization

Life begins at the moment of conception (the time when a female reproductive cell, the ovum
(plural, ova), is fertilized by a male reproductive cell, the spermatozoon (plural, spermatozoa). The
moment of conception is an event when a sperm from the father unites with an ovum (egg) from the
mother to form a single celled zygote. The process of fusing the sperm cell with an egg cell is called
fertilization. The zygote contains 23 pairs of 46 chromosomes half from the father and half from the
mother. Conception takes place in the fallopian tube (tubes connecting the ovaries with the uterus
both at the right and the left side).
Importance of conception: The time of conception can be regarded as one of the most

50
 important in a person’s life. The reason for this is that three very important conditions which
have a great impact, both directly and indirectly, on the newly created individual’s future
development are determined at that time.
Conditions determined at the time of conception are:-
i. Hereditary endowment: The Newly-created child’s hereditary endowment is determined when
the sperm cell unites with the ovum.
ii. Sex determination: Whether child will be male or female is determined one and for all, at the
time of conception and nothing, after that, can change the child’s sex.
iii. Number of offspring: Whether the child will be a singleton or one of non-identical multiple
births is determined when fertilization occurs. Whether the child will be one of identical multiple
births is determined in the early stages of cell splitting immediately after fertilization.
The prenatal period is one of the most important periods in human development that spans a 9
month or around 280 days. The prenatal period consists of three phases: During these stages the
zygote grows to an embryo and then to a fetus.
The prenatal period consists of three phases: the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages.
a) The germinal,
b) Embryonic, and
c) Fetal stages.
A) The Germinal Stage(Fertilization to 2 Week)
It is a Period of the Zygote (The germinal period or period of the ovum) (conception to end of
the second week).In the germinal stage, the first and shortest stage of the prenatal period, the
zygote begins to divide and grow in complexity during the first 2 weeks following conception.
 The size of the zygote remains unchanged because it has no outside source of nourishment; it
is kept alive by yolk in the ovum.
 Rapid internal development
 Firstly the zygote is a free floating organism, but about 10 days after fertilization, the zygote
becomes implanted in the uterine wall.
When fully developed, the placenta serves as a channel between the mother and fetus, providing
nourishment and oxygen via the umbilical cord. In addition, waste materials from the developing
child are removed through the umbilical cord.
Germinal period has two layers of cells

51
 1. Blastocyst: the inner layer of cells
2. Trophoblast: the outer layer
Implantation: the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. It takes place about 10 days after
conception.
B) The Embryonic Stage(2 Weeks to 8 Weeks)

It is a Period of the embryo formation starting from the end of the second week to end of the
second month. By the end of the germinal period—just 2 weeks after conception—the organism
is firmly secured to the wall of the mother's uterus. At this point, the child is called an embryo.
The embryonic stage is the period from 2 to 8 weeks following fertilization. The rapidly
increasing numbers of cells start to differentiate into three distinct layers of cells. These include:
a. The ectoderm: is the outer layer from which the nervous system, the skin, hair and nails
eventually develop.
b. The mesoderm: is the middle layer from which the muscles and bones and the circulatory
and excretory system develop.
c. The endoderm: is the inner layer from which important components of the gastro-intestinal
system, the liver, the lungs & the glands develop.
Therefore all the crucial features of the body, both external and internal are established. The
embryo develops into a miniature human being.
C) . The Fetal Stage (8 Weeks to Birth)

It is a Period of the Fetus formation lasts from the end of the second month to birth. This period
is the last period of prenatal development. This period is also the longest period of the pre-natal
development.
 Changes occur in the actual or relative size of the parts already formed and in their functioning.
No new features appear at this time. By the end of the seventh month, the fetus is well enough
developed to survive, should it be born prematurely (age of viability).
The fetal stage starts at about 8 weeks after conception and continues until birth. The fetal stage
formally starts when the differentiation of the major organs has occurred. Now called a fetus,
the developing child undergoes amazingly rapid change during the fetal stage.

Important characteristics of the prenatal period

52
 Scientific research has revealed that there are four very important happenings before birth.

Those are:-

I. Establishment of the hereditary endowment

II. Rapid growth and development

III. Conditions in prenatal environment

IV. Attitude of significant people

3.2 The Birth Process (From Fetus to partunate/Neonate)

Birth is not the beginning of life. Instead, it is merely an interruption in the developmental
pattern that began at the time of conception. It is the time when the individual must make a
transition from the internal environment of the mother’s uterus to the world outside the mother’s
body. In so doing, the individual must adjust from being a parasite, completely dependent on the
mother for the survival, to being independent.
Child birth (labor) is a stage process. The first stage of labour is the slow opening of your
cervix. The second stage is the birth of your baby. The third stage is separation and birth of the
placenta. The fourth stage is the first two hours after birth. It involves four stages of labour: the
shortening and opening of the cervix during the first stage, descent and birth of the baby during
the second, the delivery of the placenta during the third, and the recovery of the parent and infant
during the fourth stage, which is referred to as the postpartum.
Or speaking in other way, the first stage is when your cervix is opening and your baby is moving
down the birth canal. The second stage is when your baby is being born and the third stage is
when the placenta is delivered. Understanding the stages of birth can help you know what is
happening during your labour.
Child birth (labor) is a three stage process. These are:-
 First stage of labor (contraction) - is the contraction of the uterus to dilate the cervix. It is the
period of the birth process lasting from the first regular uterine contraction until the cervix is
fully dilated.
 Second stage of (delivery) - Begins with the babies’ head entering to the birth canal and ends
with the complete emergence of the baby. It is the period of the birth process during which the
fetus moves through the birth canal and emerges from the mother’s body (also called delivery).
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 Third stage of (deliver of the placenta) (also called after birth) – is a stage at which the
placenta, the umbilical cord and the amniotic sac are detached and expelled from the uterus. It
refers to expulsion of the placenta (after birth).
 Cesarean Section: - is a surgical removal of the baby from the uterus. It becomes a medical
option when the fetus is in breech position (come out buttocks first instead of head first) or when
it is too big to pass through the birth canal, or when the mother has problems during labor.
 Other Birth complication
 Pre - maturity (deliver before the end of the normal gestation period).
 Post- maturity (delivery long after the normal delivery date), low birth weight and still birth
(dead baby) are the other birth complications.
3.3. Factors affecting prenatal development
A fetus may face threats to its normal development through various factors. Some can be natural and
some are manmade. The following are the major human made factors that affect the development of
pre-natal development.
 A miscarriage—known as a spontaneous abortion—occurs when pregnancy ends before the
developing child is able to survive outside the mother's womb. The embryo detaches from the
wall of the uterus and is expelled. Many occur so early that the mother is not even aware she was
pregnant and may not even know she has suffered a miscarriage. Typically, miscarriages are
attributable to some sort of genetic abnormality.
 In abortion, a mother voluntarily chooses to terminate pregnancy. Involving a complex set of
physical, psychological, legal, and ethical issues, abortion is a difficult choice for every woman.
 A teratogen is an environmental agent such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that
produces a birth defect. Generally, teratogens have their largest effects during periods of
especially rapid prenatal development.
 Mother's Diet clearly plays an important role in reinforcing the development of the fetus. A
mother who eats a varied diet high in nutrients is apt to have fewer complications during
pregnancy, an easier labor, and a generally healthier baby than a mother whose diet is restricted
in nutrients (Gurling, 2007).
 Mother's Age: delay in childbirth has potential consequences for both mothers' and children's
health. Women who give birth when over the age of 30 are at greater risk for a variety of
pregnancy and birth complications than younger ones. Older mothers are also considerably more

54
 likely to give birth to children with Down syndrome, a form of mental retardation. The risks
involved in pregnancy are greater not only for older mothers, but for atypically young women as
well. Women who become pregnant during adolescence—are more likely to have premature
deliveries.
 Mother's Prenatal Support: Young mothers often face adverse social and economic factors that
can affect infant health. Many teenage mothers do not have enough money or social support, a
situation that prevents them from getting good prenatal care and parenting support after the baby
is born.
 Mother's Health: Depending on when it strikes, an illness in a pregnant woman can have
devastating consequences. For instance, the onset of rubella (German measles) in the mother
prior to the 11th week of pregnancy is likely to cause serious consequences in the baby,
including blindness, deafness, heart defects, or brain damage. Several other diseases such as
syphilis, AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) may affect a developing fetus, again
depending on when the illness is contracted. Mothers who have the disease or who merely are
carriers of the virus may pass it on to their fetuses through the blood that reaches the placenta.
However, if mothers with AIDS are treated with antiviral drugs such as AZT during pregnancy,
less than 5% of infants are born with the disease.
 Mother's Drug Use: Mother's use of many kinds of drugs—both legal and illegal—poses
serious risks to the unborn child. Even drugs prescribed by medical professionals have
sometimes had disastrous consequences. Birth control or fertility pills taken by pregnant women
before they are aware of their pregnancy can also cause fetal damage.
 Mother's Use of Alcohol and Tobacco: Mothers' use of alcohol can have profound
consequences for the unborn child. The children of alcoholics, who consume substantial
quantities of alcohol during pregnancy, are at the greatest risk. Smoking also produces several
consequences, none good.
Simply put, human made factors include
 Teratogens (drug use, use of alcohol and tobacco)
 Maternal conditions such as (Mother’s diet (nutrition), age, prenatal support, health, and
maternal emotions).
 Miscarriage
 X-ray and Radium

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  RH Factor((incompatibility between the maternal and paternal blood types)
 Uterine Crowding.
 Parental age
 Vitamin Deficiency
 Heredity Related factors
Though there are a number of heredity related factors that affect the prenatal development, some
of the main ones are:
 Chromosomal and genetic abnormalities and autosomal Abnormalities
 Schizophrenia
 Manic depression
 Neurotic disorder

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Chapter Four: Postnatal Stages of Development
Section One: Infancy and Toddlerhood (From Birth to 2 Years)

The period from birth to two years constitutes the infancy stage of life. During the prenatal
period the fetus faces the task of preparing itself for the birth process and to overcome the odds
against normal development. Thus, the new born baby has the capacity for all life sustaining
activities such as breathing, sucking and swallowing, and discharging bodily waste.

1.1. The prenatal environment

The prenatal environment is the environment surrounding birth; it includes influences such as
drugs given to the mother during delivery, delivery practices, and the social environment shortly
after the baby is born. The prenatal environment is an important one that can affect a baby’s
wellbeing and the course of his/her future development.
Infancy (birth -14 days or 2 weeks): Many psychologists fail to set an age limit on infancy. This
gives the period an ambiguous status in the life-span. So, there is no any clear-cut demarcation
about the period of the infant. However in this course it will be limited to the first two –weeks of
life. The word infant suggests extreme helplessness. Infancy is the beginning or the early period
of existence as an individual rather than as a parasite in the mother’s body.
Infancy: - The time when the transition is being made-the perinatal experience and the
necessary adjustments to it is surrounding known as “Infancy”.
The period of Infancy is divided in two periods. The period of partunate: refers to the time when
the birth process is actually taking place and the period of neonate is the adjustment period to the
changes brought about by birth.

Brainstorming Activity
 What do you think will be the length and characteristics of partunate and neonate periods?
 Discuss on the prenatal environment and the stages of birth process?

The length and characteristics of each of these sub-periods are discussed below.

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1.1.2. Subdivisions of Infancy: In spite of its shortness, infancy is generally subdivided into two
periods: the periods of the Partunate and the period of the neonate.

A. Period of the Partunate (from birth to fifteen to thirty minutes after birth):
This period covers the first 15 or 30 minutes after birth as well as with the cutting of the
umbilical cord, the infant becomes a separate, distinct, and independent individual.
This period begins when the fetal body has emerged from the mother’s body and lasts until the
umbilical cord has been cut and tied. Until this is done, the infant continues to be a parasite and
makes no adjustments to the postnatal environment (the environment outside the mother’s body).
Besides, Birth: (From Fetus to Neonate) occurs at this infancy stage. The exact moment of birth
occurs when the fetus, having left the uterus through the cervix, passes through the vagina to
emerge fully from its mother's body. In most cases, babies automatically make the transition
from taking in oxygen via the placenta to using their lungs to breathe air. Consequently, as soon
as they are outside the mother's body, most newborns spontaneously cry. This helps them clear
their lungs and breathe on their own. This refers to the time the baby emerges from mother’s
body until the cutting and tying of the umbilical cord. Until this, the child is a parasite and makes
no adjustments to the postnatal environment. What happens next varies from situation to
situation and from culture to culture.
B. Period of the Neonate (from the cutting and tying of the umbilical cord to approximately
the end of the second week of postnatal life).
The infant is now a separate, independent individual and is no longer a parasite. During this
period, the infant must make adjustments to the new environment outside the mother’s body.
This period covers the remainder of the infancy period.
 According to medical criteria, it ends with the falling off of the umbilical cord, about 2 weeks
after birth.
 According to psychological criteria, it ends with the regaining of lost birth weight and
indications of a resumption of development.
 Adjustments essential to a life free from the protection of the intrauterine environment are
successfully made.
Besides, at the period of neonate: (From birth to two weeks) refers to the period from the
cutting and tying of umbilical cord to approximately the end of second week of postnatal period.

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The infant is now separate, independent, individual and no longer a parasite. During this period
the infant begins to make adjustments to the new environment outside the mother’s body.
The neonate displays:
 Several reflexes as well as skills which help the process of development.
 The new born infant responds to pressure or touch on the cheek by turning the head towards
the touch and opening the mouth. This automatic and involuntary response or reflex, known
as rooting reflex.
 Feeding is further facilitated by sucking reflex by which the neonate sucks on objects placed
into the mouth.
 The rooting reflex disappears over the first few weeks of life and is replaced by voluntary
head turning.
 The sucking reflex is also gradually modified over the first few months of life as sucking
comes under voluntary control.
1.1.3. Characteristics of Infancy
Brain storming
 Describe the characteristics of infancy

Each period in the lifespan is characterized by certain developmental phenomena that distinguish
it from the periods that precede and follow it. This period brings dramatic changes in the body
and brain that support the emergence of a wide array of motor, perceptual, and intellectual
capacities; the beginnings of language; and first intimate ties to others. Infancy spans the first
year; toddlerhood spans the second, during which children take their first independent steps,
marking a shift to greater autonomy.
During infancy, the physical and motor development is quite rapid. Primarily due to maturation,
children show regularity in development of locomotion and motor skills. They are able to raise
their head by about 2 months, sit with support by 4 months, walk with support by 9 months and
walk on their own by 10-12 months. The rate of growth is very rapid during the first two years.
A normal two year old infant grows to a height which is almost half of the adult height and the
birth weight increase nearly four times by that age. The body proportion also changes
dramatically from birth till adulthood. In general the following are the five most important
characteristics of this period.

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1. Infancy/neonate/ is the shortest of all postnatal development periods -It is the time that the
fetus must adjust to life outside the uterine walls of the mother after approximately nine months.
It requires approximately two weeks to adjusting to the new environment outside the mother’s
body.
2. Infancy is a time of radical adjustments-it is a period of adjusting to temperature changes,
Breathing, sucking and swallowing, elimination etc..
3. Infancy is a plateau in development. The half in growth and development, characteristic of
this plateau, is due to the necessity for making radical adjustments to the postnatal environment.
Once these adjustments have been made, infants resume their growth and development. The
rapid growth and development which took place during the prenatal period suddenly come to
stop with birth. There is a slight regression such as loss of weight, less strong and healthy than it
was at the time of birth due to adjustment issues to the postnatal environment.
4. Infancy is a preview of later development: It is not possible to predict with even reasonable
accuracy what the individual’s future development will be on the basis of the development
apparent at birth. However, the newborn’s development provides a clue as to what to expect
later on.
5. Infancy is a hazardous period: infancy is a hazardous period, both physically and
psychologically. Physically, it is hazardous because of the difficulties of making the necessary
radical adjustments to the totally new and different environment. The high infant mortality rate
is evidence of this. Psychologically, infancy is hazardous because it is the time when the
attitudes of significant people toward the infant are crystallized. Physically the infant finds it
difficult in making adjustments to the new environment. Psychologically the infant suffers a little
when the attitudes of significant people towards the infant radically changes.
i. Physical characteristics: The infant does not look attractive, has a fine hair named languor,
skin is soft, free from fat, the head is so proportionally large that the infant may look to have a
trouble holding it on his/her own body. Generally the average new born weighs 2.8 K.G. and
measures 52 centimeters.
ii. Physiological characteristics: Physiologically the neonate’s breathing is often irregular, quick,
shallow, and may suddenly stop. This condition is called apnea. The heart beat rate of the infant is
between 120 and 150 beats per minute (this is twice when compared to that of an adult). Temperature
wise the body temperature of the infant is unstable. Besides infants lose their body heat more readily,

60
this is because their thin skin lacks a layer of insulating fat, indeed, infants lose their body heat four
times as fast as adults.

1.1.4. Major hazards and Adjustments of Infancy

Discuss about the major hazards of infancy
 What is the role of you as ECCE professionals in helping parents who faced severe
problems of their new infant?

Because of the vast differences between the internal and external environments, the neonate must
make radical and rapid adjustments. If they don’t make them quickly their lives will be
threatened. And these challenges are shown by a three important lines of evidences.
Major hazards of infancy: In spite of its short duration, infancy is one of the most hazardous
periods in the life-span. Hazards at this time may be physical, psychological, or both and they
can affect both present and future adjustments.
A. Physical hazards: Some of the physical hazards of infancy are of only temporary
significance, while others can affect the individual’s entire life pattern. The most serious
physical hazards are those relating to:
i. Unfavorable prenatal Environment: As a result of unfavorable conditions in the prenatal
environment, the infant may have difficulty adjusting to postnatal life.
ii. Difficult and complicated birth: A difficult or complicated birth frequently results in
temporary or permanent brain damage. The more complicated the birth and the more damage
there is to the brain tissue, the greater the effect of the infant’s life and adjustments.
iii. Post maturity:
Write down the differences between post maturity and prematurity
Post maturity is hazardous only when the fetus becomes so large that the birth requires the use
of instruments or surgery, in which case the hazards are due to the conditions associate with birth
rather than to post maturity.
iv) Pre-maturity: Pre-maturity causes more infant deaths than any other condition. Pre-maturity
affects adjustments not only during infancy but also for many years thereafter.

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 V) Infant mortality: The most serious of the physical hazards of infancy is infant mortality. The
most critical times for death during the period of infancy are the day of birth (when two –thirds
of all neonatal deaths occur) and the second and third days after birth. The causes of infant
mortality are numerous and varied.
VII) Loss of weight:- after a birth, the partunate normally lose weight for approximately a week.
Mostly they got their normal birth weight by the end of the 2nd week.
VIII) Disorganized pattern of behavior: - all partunate/neonate experience a state of relative
disorganization after birth. Their behavior suggests that they have been stunned by the
experience (due to disturbance of the cranial circulation and Deficient mechanisms for
maintaining body homeostasis owing to the under developed autonomic nervous system at birth.
B) Psychological Hazards:
M Mention some of the psychological hazards
Psychological scars acquired during infancy can cause the individual lifelong adjustment problems.
Some of the psychological hazards are the following
i. Traditional beliefs about birth: There are many traditional belies about the effects birth has
on the development of children. Difficult births, for example, are believed to result in
“difficult children.”
ii. Helplessness: To some parents the helplessness of the newborn infant is appealing while, to
most, it is frightening. Even parents, who have had some experience in taking care of their
babies, often feel insecure and inadequate when they assume full responsibility. Anxiety and
insecurity are quickly transmitted to the infants through the way mothers handle them and this
affects their postnatal adjustments.
The helplessness of the newborn is more of a psychological hazard in the case of firstborns than
of later-born children. By the time parents have had several children; they accept the
helplessness of the newborn in a more relaxed way and are not so likely to be disturbed by it as
they are for the firstborn infant.
iii. Unfavorable attitudes on the part of significant people: There are a number of reasons for
the development of unfavorable attitudes toward the infant. Aware of the new responsibilities
they will have to face, disappointment about the infant’s sex and its appearance etc…
Major Adjustments of Infancy:
Reflective activity

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  What are the major adjustments of infancy?
Infants must make four major adjustments before they can resume their developmental progress.
If they do not make them quickly, their lives will be threatened.
i. Adjustment to Temperature changes: There is a constant temperature of 100F0 in the uterine
sac, while temperatures in the hospital or home may vary from 60 to 70Fo.
ii. Adjustment to Breathing: When the umbilical cord is cut, infants must begin to breathe on
their own. The first birth cry normally comes when breathing begins and thus serves to inflate
the lungs. At first, breathing is imperfect and irregular. The infant yawns, gasps, sneezes, and
coughs in an effort to regulate the amount of air needed. If the infant is unable to do so, oxygen
must be administered to help establish normal breathing.
iii. Adjustment to taking Nourishment (Sucking and Swallowing): The infant must now get
nourishment by sucking and swallowing instead of receiving it through the umbilical cord.
These reflexes are imperfectly developed at birth and the infant often gets less nourishment than
is needed and thus loses weight. This is direct contrast to the situation in the prenatal
environment, where the fetus received constant nourishment through the umbilical cord.
iv. Adjustment to Elimination: The infant’s organs of elimination begin to work soon after
birth; formerly, waste products were eliminated through the umbilical cord. If the infants do not
make the above adjustments rapidly, their lives would be threatened. So it is essential to detect
any problem at the earliest possible moment.
One method that medical doctors use is called APGAR. The APGAR scale involves rating the
new born child on five symptoms: Heart rate, respiratory rate, reflex irritability, muscle tone and
color. This scale is used to assess the new born health conditions.
Major adjustment problems of Infants
 Change in temperature requires adjustment.
 Starting breathing by own creates problems. When the umbilical cord is cut the infant must
begin to breath eon its own.
 Starting to suck and swallow is difficult for neonates. When the umbilical cord is cut off, the
child gets nourishment by the reflexes of sucking and swallowing instead of receiving it from
the mother through umbilical cord.
 Beginning the elimination of waste products also creates problems. Some infants are seen to

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 have trouble shooting with elimination matters.

1.1.5. Characteristics of infants’ development

[Link]. Physical development
Reflective activities
 Can you mention, using your knowledge from theories of child development, the
cognitive and social emotional aspects of development during infancy?
 How do you describe physical development during infancy?

Physical development covers the important skills of using our bodies; the use of large muscles to
walk, run, climb, jump and skip and the use of our smaller muscles, for example for hand co-
ordination. The newborn’s physical characteristics are unique from those of a slightly older
infant. The skin is wrinkled. Within the first few days it will dry out and possibly peel in some
areas. Skin color of all babies is relatively light, but will gradually darken to a shade
characteristic of their genetic background. The head may appear to have an unusual shape as the
result of the birth process, but it will assume a normal shape within the first week.

Most brain changes occur prenatally and soon after birth. At birth, the partunate’s brain weighs
only 25 percent of that of an adult brain. Its height measures about 18to 21 inches (45.7–53.3
cm) and average weight at birth is 6.5 to 9 pounds (3.0–4.1 kg); females weigh approximately7
pounds (3.2 kg), males 7.5 pounds (3.4 kg).5 to 7 percent of birth weight is lost in the days
immediately following birth. A baby is born with about 350 bones. Some of these bones fuse
together as the baby grows. By adulthood there are only 206 bones in the body.
As child grows, body shape rapidly changes. Development proceeds in cephalocaudal (head
downward) direction, and it is the trunk that grows fastest during the first year. At 1 year of age,
a child’s head now accounts for only 20% of the total body length. From the child’s first birthday
until the adolescent growth spurt, the legs grow rapidly, accounting for more than 60% of the
increase in height (Eichorn, 1979).
Children also grow upward (center outward), according to a proximodistal formula. During
prenatal development, for e.g. the chest & internal organs form first, followed by the arms &

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 legs, and then the hands and feet. Throughout infancy & childhood, the arms & the legs continue
to grow faster than the hands and feet.

Birth to 4 weeks a new born infant

-Lies on back with head to one side
-Head lags when pulled up to sit
-Primitive reflexes, i.e. rooting, sucking, stepping, grasping
Sensory development
-Senses of smell, hearing and taste develop in the womb.
-Touch is the first sense to develop followed by pain.
-The least developed sensation at birth is sight.
Reflexes: - is defined as an unlearned and automatic response to a stimulus. They are an involuntary
response to a particular stimulus. For example the newborn babies able to move their bodies,
these movements are not skills but reflexes. • Most reflexes are useful and help the new born to
show adaptive responses before they have had the opportunity to learn.
There are two major reflexes present in full term neonates. These are:-
I. Survival reflexes: - are inborn responses such as breathing, sucking, and swallowing that
enable the newborn to adapt to the environment. The major survival reflexes are
breathing reflex (reflexes that maintain oxygen supply)., sucking reflex( reflexes that
manages feeding). , rooting reflex, eye-blink reflex, papillary reflex, swallowing reflex
and reflexes that maintain constant body temperature.
 Sucking reflexes causes the newborns to suck anything that touches their lips (fingers, toes,
blankets etc.)
 Rooting reflexes causes babies to turn their mouths towards anything that brushes against
their cheeks.
 Swallowing is also another important reflex that aid feeding.
 Most of infants’ reflexes disappear between 3 to6 months.
ii) Primitive reflex:-are reflexes that are believed to be remnants of our evolutionary history that
have outlived their original purpose. Or reflexes controlled by sub cortical areas of the brain that
gradually disappear over the first year of life. The major primitive reflexes are babinski reflex,
swimming reflex and moro reflex.

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iii. Perceptual characteristics: Infants are able to perceptually discriminate among substances
partially. They give various responses to various sounds, attend to human speech more than to
non-speech sounds and indicate special sensitivity to the sound of the mother’s voice. With
regard to vision, infants respond differently to light and darkness. Reflexes are familiar
responses for infants.

[Link]. Cognitive development

 Discuss about Cognitive development in infancy
 Intellectual Development of Infant babies: vocalizes (makes cooing sounds and chuckles),
vocalizes spontaneously and discovers s/he has impact on environment (e.g., if s/he cries,
caregiver will come).
Since Sensorimotor development takes places in infancy and toddler hood. Sensorimotor stage
develops when infants learn about themselves and their world through their own developing
sensory and motor activity. During the Sensorimotor stages, children develop several important
cognitive concepts.
1. Blinks in reaction to bright light
2. Turns to soft light
3. Stares at carer
4. Cries when basic needs require attention
[Link]. Language development
 How do you describe Language development in infancy?
Language learning largely depends upon maturation of brain processes and physical structures
concerned with making of speech sounds.
 Children communicate even before they are born.
 A baby in the uterus will respond to loud noises or distress by moving.
A new-born baby communicates through crying and quieting with increasing sophistication.
Methods of soothing a fussy baby
While a newborn is crying caregivers should try to understand what he/she needs and provide
services accordingly. Some of the methods to soothe a crying neonate are:-
o If the neonate is not eaten, feeding may be an effective method of pacification.
o Presentation of a mild sucrose solution is particularly effective at calming distressed

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 newborns.
o Rocking (move side to side or move up and down)
o Humming (the act of singing with closed lips)
o Stroking (a light touch with the hands)
o Swaddling (wrapping the infant snugly in a blanket)
 It does not take long for a carer to recognise the meanings of different cries: hungry,
tired, cold, fed up, needing a cuddle, etc.
 Listen to a parent talking to their baby – you will probably hear them using a simple
form of language that develops in complexity as the child develops language. This is
called ’motherese’.
[Link]. Socio-Emotional Development
 Social Development of Infant babies: recognizes caregivers, very dependent upon
caregivers for fulfillment of needs and initiates social contact (e.g., smiles when caregiver
appears)
 Emotional Development of Infant babies: establishes attachment/bonding with caregivers
(caregiver and child get to know each other – learn to read each other’s cues and become
emotionally attached to one another), crying and smiling, comforts self with thumb or
pacifier learns to trust that basic needs will be met, concerned with satisfaction of needs.
o Emotions are the first languages that infants and parents communicate with.
o Just like other aspects of development, emotional development also has its timetable.
o Emotions are present at birth are distress, startled response and neonatal smile.
o Crying is the most important means of communication for the infant. Cry can even be divided in to
basic cry, angry cry and pain cry.
o From 3 to 4 weeks after birth the infant will show “social smile”. Anger, surprise and sadness
appear between 3 to 4 months.
 Birth to 4 weeks
 Responds positively to main carer
 Imitates facial expressions
 Stares at bright shiny objects
 The development of the deep feelings between parents or carers and their children comes
about through a process of bonding and attachment. It is an emotional bondage that is formed
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 between the child and the parent. • Attachment is a process that develops gradually from the
first movement of contact. • Attachment forms in infancy and remains lift long.
 Babies create mechanisms /devices to get the caregiver for example, by crying, the baby
may learn the primary care giver can come.
 This attachment is helped in the early months by a number of things including:
 skin contact
 smell
 talking, and listening to parents’ voices
 feeding
 bathing
 play
 Eye-to-eye contact.

Temperament
It is a person’s inborn /inherited/ characteristic way of responding to stimuli and is the first
manipulations of what will be later called personality. Temperament is an individual’s tendency
to respond in a predictable ways to environmental events; that many believe to be the emotional
and behavioral building blocks of the adult personality (Caspi & Silva, 1995).Individual
differences in the temperaments of new born infant are usually attributed largely to inborn
genetic factors and aggravated neonatal experiences.
About 40% of newborn infants are easy tempered, meaning that:
 They readily approach and easily adapt to new situations
 They react mildly to things
 They are regular in sleep/wake and eating routines and they have a positive overall mood.
 They have a sanguine type of humour
Moral Development of Infant babies: sees him/her as the center of the world and has no sense
of right or wrong.
Section Two: The Babyhood Stage (2weeks – 2years)
Brain storming
 Define the period of babyhood

Babyhood occupies the first two years of life following the brief two-week period of infancy.

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The label babyhood is used here to distinguish it from the extreme helplessness characteristic of
the immediate postnatal period. During babyhood, there is a gradual but pronounced decrease in
helplessness. A toddler is a baby who has achieved enough body control to be relatively
independent.
2.1. Characteristics of Babyhood
 List and describe the main characteristics of babyhood
 Write down something you know about babies and their characteristics?

Certain characteristics of babyhood, may distinguish babyhood from the periods preceding it and
those that follow it. Following are the most important characteristics
i. Babyhood is the true foundation age: While the whole of childhood, but especially the early
years, are generally regarded as the foundation age, babyhood is the true foundation period of
life because, at this time, many behavior patterns, many attitudes, and many patterns of
emotional expression are being established.
Babyhood is the true foundation age. At this time, many behavior patterns, attitudes and
emotional expressions are established. It is a critical period in setting the pattern for personal and
emotional adjustments.
ii. Babyhood is an age of rapid growth and change: Babies grow rapidly, both physically and
psychologically. With this rapid growth comes a change not only in appearance but also
incapacities.
Babyhood is a distinctive period in the life span. It is a problem age or troublesome age for
parents since most of them are centered around the baby’s physical care. Babies grow rapidly
both physically and psychologically. Changes are rapid in appearance (height and weight) and
capacities. The limbs develop in better proportion to the large head. Intellectual growth and
change are parallel to physical growth and change. Ability grows to recognize and respond to
people and objects in the environment. The baby is able to understand many things and
communicate its needs and wants.
iii. Babyhood is an age of decreasing dependency
 What do we mean by baby is an age of decreasing dependency
The decrease in dependency on others results from the rapid development of body control which

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enables babies to sit, stand, and walk and to manipulate objects. The baby begins to do things to
itself. With decrease of dependency, a rebellion against being treated as baby. A protest takes
protest comes in the form of angry outbursts and crying when independence is denied.
iv. Babyhood is the age of increased individuality: Perhaps the most significant thing about
increased independence is that it permits babies to develop along lines suited to their interests
and abilities. As individuality increases so does the necessity for treating each baby as an
individual. It is an age of high individuality which can be realized in appearance and in patterns
of behavior.
v. Babyhood is the beginning of socialization: The egocentrism, characteristic of the very
young baby, quickly gives way to a desire to become a part of the social group. One of the ways
in which babies show their interest in becoming a part of the social group is by attachment
behavior.
vi. Babyhood is the beginning of sex-role typing: Almost from the moment of birth, boys are
treated as boys and girls as girls. Sex-appropriate role is encouraged in early training.
vii. Babyhood is the beginning of creativity: Babies are learning, in these early months of life
to develop interests and attitudes that will lay the foundations for later creativity or for
conformity to patterns set by others.
Therefore, babyhood is the beginning of Creativity, sex role and socialization for adjustment in
future life.
viii) Babyhood is a hazardous age
 Why Babyhood is said to be a hazardous age?
While there are hazards at every age during the life–span certain hazards are more common
during babyhood than at other ages. Some of these are physical and some psychological. Among
the physical hazards; illnesses and accidents are the most serious because they often lead to
permanent disabilities or to death. Since behavior patterns, interests, and attitudes are established
during babyhood, serious psychological hazards can result if poor foundations are laid at this
time.
In short, babyhood is a hazardous period. The physical hazards are illness, accidents, disabilities
and death. Psychological hazards are disinterests and negative attitudes.
Developmental tasks and hazards of Babyhood
Hazards in babyhood: Because babyhood is the foundation age, it is especially hazardous

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 time. The hazards may be physical, psychological, or both. In the first year of babyhood,
physical hazards tend to be more numerous and more serious than psychological ones.
A) Physical hazards
 Explain the difference between Physical and Psychological hazards
Physical hazards are serious for all babies but especially for those who are born prematurely; those
who suffer from brain damage or other birth defects; and those whose physical development and
general physical condition at birth is poor. Physical hazards include mortality, illnesses, accidents,
malnutrition, obesity, etc.
B. Psychological hazards: Most of the serious psychological hazards of babyhood are related,
either directly or indirectly, to the failure to master the developmental tasks of babyhood. The
common psychological hazards of babyhood include: Emotional deprivation, stress, too much
affection, dominant emotions, separation from mother, failure to develop attachment behavior,
deterioration in family relationships, over protectiveness, inconsistent training, child abuse, etc.
2.2. General Physical Developments in Babyhood
Babyhood is one of the two periods of rapid growth during the postnatal life-span; the other
comes at puberty. During the first six months of life, growth continues at the rapid rate
characteristic of the prenatal period and then begins to slow down. In the second year, the rate of
growth decelerates rapidly. During the first year of life, the increase in weight is proportionally
greater than the increase in height; during the second year the reverse is true.
2.2. 1. Motor Development
Motor development means the development of control over bodily movements through the
coordinated activity of the nerve centers, the nerves, and the muscles. One of the more dramatic
developments of the first year of life is the remarkable progress that infants make in controlling
their movements & perfecting motor skills.
By the end of the first month, the brain & neck muscles have matured enough to permit most
infants to reach the first milestone in loco motor development. Since the physical development
is quite rapid primarily due to maturation, children show regularity in development of
locomotion and motor skills. The rate of growth is very rapid during the first two years. Gross
and fine motor skills -refers to the big muscles in the body such as neck, chest bock, arms and
legs.
Fine Motor skills: - are physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the

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hands and fingers, such as drawing or picking up a coin, grasping and throwing objects, hand
rotation and coordination of thumb and finger are attained only after gross motor development
has taken place
. • During the first two months, babies excitedly stare and wave their arms at an object dangling
within reached.
• By 3 months they can touched it but not hold it.
• By 4 months, infants sometimes grab but the grab is of short duration.
• By 6months, they can grab and hold right sized objects and transfer from one hand to another.
• By 8/9 months, they can adjust their reach in an effort to catch an object.
• By 11/12 months, they can coordinate both hands to enclose an object that is too big for one
hand alone.
Gross motors kills: - are physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking
and jumping.
• In the first month infants can lift their head and by 2- 3 months they can use their arms to pick
up their chest.
• By 4-6 months sitting with support is attained.
• By 7and 8 months crawling and standing without support and walk with support by 9 months
• An average infant can walk at 10 to 12/13 months. However the actual time of attainment of
each milestone in gross motor development varies from infant to infant.
. Weight and height
 Compare and contrast the development of weight and height babyhood
At the age of 4 or 5 months the baby doubles its birth weight, and triples by one year. At the
age of 4 years the baby doubles its birth height (there is a relative slowness of changes in height).
Brain Size
 How do you describe the growth of a baby’ brain
At birth the baby’s brain weighs about 25% of that of an adult, at 3 months age 40% of that of
an adult, at 6 months age 50% of that of an adult, at 24 months (2 years) age 75% of that of an
adult’s brain
. Physiological functions
I. Sleep patterns: The child’s sleeping time coverage progress continuously with increasing age

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at the babyhood stage.
1
Example: - At 3 weeks age the child sleeps 8 2 hours per day but at 12 months (1year) age the
child’s sleeping time increased to10 hours per day
II. Bowel control
 Compare and contrast bowel and bladder control which one takes more time to and why?
Bowel control starts when the baby is six months old while bladder control begins when it is 15
to 16 months old.
 When the baby becomes tired, ill or emotionally excited temporary lapses may be observed.
 Dryness in the day time occurs very early when compared to dryness in the night time.
2.2. 2. Perceptual Development
 Discuss about Perceptual Development
Rapid changes with regard to the baby’s visual capacity occur during the first 4 to 6 months.
The baby at this stage focuses on objects close to him/her (distant objects are likely to be
blurred) and has somehow limited acuity (Acuity is the visual ability to detect both small stimuli
and small details of large visual patterns). By the time the baby is 3 months old, his/ her ability
to focus on distant objects progress quickly and reaches adult performance. The new born is
probably able to discriminate color and this discriminating ability increases rapidly in the first six
months. The baby’s ability to control eye-movements goes better, and he/she can attend moving
objects more regularly and for a long period of time.

2.2. 3. Cognitive Development

Reflective Activity
 What is Piaget’s cognitive development stage that corresponds infancy & toddlerhood?
 What are the main characteristic that marks this stage of cognitive development?
 Describe Cognitive Development during babyhood

Intellectual Development during babyhood: uses one or two words to name things or actions,
says words like “Mama” and “Dada”, points to familiar things, points to at least one body part,
curious about everything (explores his/her world), realizes an object can exist when out of sight
and will look for it (e.g., drops things from high chair and looks for it.

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The kind of cognitive development that occurs during the first two years of postnatal life is the
sensory-motor stage of Piaget’s cognitive development. The characteristic of sensory-motor
stage is applicable at babyhood. Since Sensorimotor development takes places in infancy and
toddler hood, sensorimotor stage develops when infants learn about themselves and their world
through their own developing sensory and motor activity.
During the Sensorimotor stages, children develop several important cognitive concepts
One is object permanence: the realization that an object or person continues to exist even when
out of sight. Object permanence is the basis of children's awareness that they exist apart from
objects and other people. It allows a child whose parent has left the room to feel secure in the
knowledge that the parent continues to exist and will return. It is essential to understanding time,
space, objects.
Another important concept that emerges during this stage is casualty, the Piagetian term for the
recognition that certain events cause other events. Awareness of casualty develops at about 10
Months.
2.2. 4. Language Development
Reflective Activity
 Why babies cry?
 Remember your home related experiences and list out the common gestures of babyhood
with their meaning?
 What is speech?
 What are the forms of infant’s communication?

Many people use the terms “speech” and “language” interchangeably. However, they are not
synonymous. Language encompasses every means of communication in which thoughts and
feelings are symbolized so as to convey meaning to others. It includes such widely differing
forms of communication as writing, speaking, sign language, facial expression, gestures,
pantomime, and art.
Speech is a form of language in which articulate sounds or words are used to convey meaning.
Speech is a motor-mental skill. It not only involves the coordination of different teams of
muscles of the vocal mechanism but it also has a mental aspect- the association of meanings with
the sounds produced. Not all sounds made by children, however, can be regarded as speech.
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 Speech is a tool of communication which relays on the development of some abilities.
Communicating with others requires two abilities: these are
o Listening and
o Speaking
Speaking and listening are challenging to the baby because they are not well developed in
babyhood. However, babies are better performing in one than the other.
Babies understand better what is communicated to them than communicating themselves to
others. Due to the immature development of speech at babyhood stage, babies use a substitute
language called pre-speech language. The pre-speech forms of language are the non-spoken
languages that include babbling or explosive sounds formed by combining a consonant and a
vowel, gesturing or body movements, facial expressions and crying.
i. Before Language: The Pre Linguistic Period (Pre speech Forms of Communication)
For the first 10 to 13 months of life, children are said to be in the pre-linguistic phase of language
development. Babies use four pre speech forms of communication: Crying, Cooing/Babbling,
Gestures, and Emotional expressions.
By the end of the second month, infants begin to laugh and coo, making soft how vowel sounds
in response to others.
Cooing: - refers to repeated vowel sounds produced by 2-3 months of old infants.
At about 5 or 6 months, babbling begins (.is a repetitive combination of sounds common to
infants combine vowel and consonant sound in strings of syllables like bababa and dabata.
Babbling sounds have no special meaning but the infant appears to enjoy such vocalization. E.g.
La, La, La, or Ba, Ba, Ba are now continues babbling- that is, repeating vowel/consonant
combinations such as “mamama” that may sound like words but convey no meaning.
 Expressive Jargon – is the speech pattern of infants between 6-12 months in which they
produce intonations and meaningless in content. Infants utter their first word around the
age of 11 to 12 months.
ii. The Holophrastic Period: One Word at a Time
Early in the 2nd years old, though it is controversial, infants have added consonant sounds to their
vocal repertoires.
 One word talk/holophrastic speech/- in which infants of 12-18 months of age uses a one word
talk about what he/she knows. e.g. Baba, mama, papa, momy etc. All babies in this stage are all

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 the some in the world, and they use these words because of they are labial and simple to talk.
Around the age of 18 months the child has the vocabulary of about 50 words. The first two
word sentences usually appear at about 18 months.
iii. The Telegraphic Period: From Holophrases to Simple Sentence
At about 18 to 24 months of age, children begin to combine words in to simple “sentences” such
as “daddy eat,” and “Mommie drink milk” that are remarkably similar across languages. These
early sentences have been called telegraphic speech because, like telegrams, they contain only
critical content word, such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives and leave out such frills as articles,
prepositions, and auxiliary verbs.
iv. Two word combination talk/ telegraphic speech/
 Infants of 18-24 months it begins to combine words to form primitive sentences. E.g. daddy
ball, mommy milk etc. After the age of two years the vocabulary continues to grow at a rapid
age. The child learns to string this word into sentences.
Generally, Language development among infants occurs in stages. Children, the world over, go
through certain stages acquiring knowledge as follows:-
(a) Crying and babbling
(b) Followed by one-word sentences
(c) Followed by longer or two-word sentences
(d) Telegraphic speech and
(e)The use of complex grammatical rules
2.2. 5. Psychosocial Development (Socio-emotional) in babyhood
I. Emotional Development during babyhood:
Describe Emotion
Defining emotion is difficult because it is not easy to tell when a child or an adult is in an
emotional state. Perhaps it could be defined as: feeling or affect that occurs when a person is in a
state or an interaction that is important to him or her, especially to his or her well-being. In other
perceptive emotion can be defined as feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal,
Conscious experience and behavioral expression.
At birth, the emotions appear in simple and undifferentiated forms. In babyhood, the emotions
are differentiated and they are aroused by a number of stimuli. Emotions are more easily
conditioned during babyhood than at latter stage. This is due to the reason that the intellectual

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abilities of babies are limited. They respond easily and quickly to stimuli. Anyhow there is
hesitation to respond in some cases. A babyhood hugs caregiver, does not like separation from
caregiver, expresses several emotions clearly but is unable to identify them, trusts caregivers and
sees him/herself as permanent with enduring qualities (e.g., male versus female.
In research on emotional development, two broad types of emotions are studied
A) Primary emotions

Explain the similarities and differences between Primary and secondary emotions

These are present in humans and other animals. They are regarded as “primary” because they
have deep biological roots (emerging in other animals, especially higher primates), they emerge
very early in life, and they are culturally universal. The primary emotions include surprise, joy,
anger, sadness, fear and disgust. They appear in the first six months of life.
B). Self-conscious emotions: These are emotions that require self-awareness. Sometimes called
“secondary emotions,” self-conscious emotions emerge later than primary emotions, are not as
apparent in animals, and may not be culturally universal.
The self-conscious emotions include empathy, Jealousy, and embarrassment, which first appear
1
at about 1 2 to 2 years (following the emergence of consciousness) and pride, shame, and guilt,
1
which first appear at about 2 2 years of age. In developing this second set of self-consciousness
emotions, children acquire and are able to use societal standards and rules to evaluate their
behavior.
Example:- From 3 to 4 weeks after birth the infant will show “social smile”. Anger, surprise and
sadness appear between 3 to 4 months. Fear appears between 5 to7 months, and guilt at 2yars of
age.
I. Temperament: Temperament is an individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of
emotional response. Temperament also refers to an individual’s natural or hereditary
characteristic way of giving a response to stimuli. Psychologists assume that temperament is the
primary or first manifestation of personality. There are three basic types, or clusters of
temperament.
According to Thomas and Chess (1977) infants’ temperament are classified into three. These are:
I, Easy Baby/temperament/: - has regular patterns of eating and sleeping.

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  Easily approach new people and objects.
 Adapts readily to the changes in the environment.
 Reacts with moderate to low intensity and typically in good mood.
II, Difficult Baby/temperament/: - has irregular patterns of eating and sleeping.
o Withdraws from new people and objects.
o Adapts slowly to the changes in the environment.
o Has intense reactions and is often irritable.
III, slow-to-warm baby/ temperament: - warm baby has slow activity level.
o Tends to withdraw when presenting with unfamiliar objects.
o Reacts with a slow level of intensity.
o Slowly adapts to the changes in the environment.
II. The growth of attachment
Reflective activity
 How do infants become attached?
In this phase infants begin to protest only when separated from one particular individual, usually
the mother. Now able to crawl, infants often try to follow along behind their mother, to stay close
and greet mothers warmly when they return. They also become somewhat wary of strangers.
The formation of a strong attachment to a caregiver has another important consequence: it
promotes the development of exploratory behavior. Marry Ainsworth (1979) emphasizes that an
attachment figure serves as a secure base for exploration, a point of safety from which an infant
can feel free to venture away.
Two Attachment- Related Fears of Anxiety
At about the same time that infants are establishing close affectionate ties to a caregiver, they
often begin to display negative emotional reactions that may puzzle or perhaps even annoy their
companions. The most common fears of infancy are:
 Stranger Anxiety- is a wary or fretful reaction that infants and toddlers often display when
approached by an unfamiliar person.
Most infants react positively to strangers until they form their first attachment, and then become
apprehensive shortly thereafter (Schaffer & Emerson, 1964).
 Separation Anxiety- is wary or fretful reaction that infants and toddlers often display when
separated from the person to whom they are attached. Separation anxiety normally appears at

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 6 to 8 months of age (at about the time infants are forming emotional attachments, peaks at
14 to 18 months, and gradually becomes less frequent and less intense throughout infancy
and the pre-school period)
Factors that Influence Attachment Security
Among the many factors that seem to influence the kinds of attachments that infants and toddlers
establish are:
o The quality of care giving they receive- sensitive responsive care giving is associated with
the development of secure attachments, whereas inconsistent, neglectful, over intrusive, and
abusive care giving predict insecure attachments. Thus, there is ample support for the care
giving hypothesis
o Infants and toddlers own health conditions and temperament- infant characteristics and
temperamental attributes may also influence attachment quality by affecting the character of
care giver-infant interactions. However, the temperament hypothesis- that attachments are
merely reflections of infant temperament- is clearly an overstatement.
o The character or emotional climate of their homes
2.2. 6. Moral Development
Reflective Activity
 Do infants have morality?
 What is morality?

Morality during Infancy and babyhood

After birth, no child has a conscience or a scale of values. Consequently, every newborn infant
may be regarded as unmoral or non-moral. Since moral development is dependent up on
intellectual development it occurs in a predictable stage related to stages in intellectual
development. So that, infants/babies/ are perceived as morally immature(pre-moral) because
babies sees him/herself as the center of the world and has no sense of right or wrong. They sees
him/herself as the center of the world and has no sense of right or wrong.
During the course of development, most of us arrive at a point at which we wish to behave
responsibly and to think of ourselves (be thought of by others) as moral individuals (Blasi,
1990).

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Morality implies a capacity to:
 Distinguish right from wrong
 Act on this distinction, and
 Experience pride in virtuous conduct and guilt or shame over acts that violate one’s standard
(Shaffer, 1994a).
As children grown up, they internalize the moral principles that they have learned and conform
to these ideals, even when authority figures are not present to enforce them. Because
internalization is a shift from externally controlled actions to conduct that is governed by
internal standards and principles- to be a most crucial milestone along the road to moral maturity.
The terms “moral” and “immoral” are so loosely used that their true significance is often
overlooked or ignored. Therefore, before any attempt is made to discuss moral development, it is
necessary to understand the meaning of these labels.
Moral behavior: - means behavior in conformity with the moral code of the social group. It is
controlled by moral concepts- the rules of behavior to which the members of a culture have
become accustomed and which determine the expected behavior patterns of all group members.
Immoral behavior: - is a behavior that fails to conform to social expectations. Such behavior is
not due to ignorance of social expectations but to disapproval of social standards or to lack of
feeling of obligation to conform.
Unmoral behavior: - unmoral or non-moral behavior is due to ignorance of what the social
group expects rather than intentional violence of the group standards. Some of the misbehavior
of young children is unmoral rather than immoral.
Section Three: Childhood Stage
The period from three to 11/12 years constitutes the childhood stage of life. During this period
the child now becomes longer and leaner, motor skills are refined, and become more self-
controlled and self-sufficient. In this section, we will dwell on discussing early and late
childhood stages of child development.
Early Childhood Stage (3-6 Years)
Early childhood stage begins at the end of the second year of life and extends to the sixth year.
Early childhood begins at the conclusion of babyhood- the age when dependency is practically a
thing of the past and is being replaced by growing independence- and ends at about the time the
child enters first grade in school. The dependency during babyhood changes to independence on

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attaining childhood age. In many occasions, they seem to reject the help offered by elders.
Early childhood (sometimes called the preschool years) extends from the end of infancy to
about 6 years. During this period, children become more self-sufficient, develop school readiness
skills (such as learning to follow instructions and identify letters), and spend many hours with
peers. First grade typically marks the end of early childhood. This is the time during which the
child who has become mobile is able to widen the sphere of his/her activities beyond the
caregivers and the family. Through his/her interaction with the wider society and the
environment, the child learns the rules of appropriate social behavior and develops mental
abilities which prepare him/her for formal education and schooling.
3.1.1. Characteristics of Early Childhood Stage
Indicate Characteristics of Early Childhood Stage
Certain characteristics of early childhood make it distinctive period in the life-span. These
characteristics are reflected in the names that parents, educators, and psychologists commonly
apply to this period.
 Identify the different names given by parents and scholars to early childhood
A. Names used by parents
I. Most parents consider early childhood a problem age or a troublesome age- While
babyhood presents problems for parents, most of these centers around the baby’s physical care.
With the dawn of childhood, behavior problems become more frequent and more troublesome
than the physical-care problems of babyhood. The reason that behavior problems dominate the
early childhood years is that:
Young children are developing distinctive personalities and are demanding an independence
which, in most cases, they are incapable of handling successfully. In addition, young children are
often obstinate, stubborn, disobedient, negativistic, and antagonistic. Generally speaking in early
childhood, behavior problems become more frequent and more troublesome than the physical
care problems in babyhood. Since the behavior problems dominate the early childhood, the
young children develop distinctive personalities and aspire for independence.
II. Parents often refer to early childhood as the toy age: - Because young children spend
much of their waking time playing with toys, this age is considered as toy age. Studies of
children’s play have revealed that toy play reaches its peak during the early childhood years and
then begins to decline when children reach the school age. Still, the early childhood is an age of

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playing with toys in most of the time. When the children enter the first standard in school, they
begin to be engaged in games and modified form of sports without toys. Anyhow, when alone,
the children are seen to play with toys.
B. Names used by Educators:
I. Educators refer to the early childhood years as the preschool age:- To distinguish it from
the time when children are considered old enough, both physically and mentally, to cope with the
work they will be expected to do when they begin their formal schooling. Even when children
go to nursery, or kindergarten, they are labeled preschoolers rather than school children. The
early childhood years, either in the home or in a preschool, are a time of preparation.
C. Name Used by Psychologists: Psychologists use a number of different names to describe the
outstanding characteristics of the psychological development of children during the early years
of childhood. Psychologists refer it as:
I. Early childhood is the pre-gang age: The time when children are learning the foundations of
social behavior as a preparation for the more highly organized social life, they will be required to
adjust to when they enter first grade. It is the pre gang age during which the children learn the
foundations of social behavior. As a general rule, during the preschool years, children find social
contacts with members of their own sex more pleasurable than those with members of the
opposite sex.
II. Early childhood is an exploratory age: It is an exploratory age in the sense that children
want to know what their environment is, how it works, how it feels, and how they can be a part
of it. This includes people as well as inanimate objects. Because the major development that
occurs during early childhood centers on gaining control over the environment .
III. Early child hood is a questioning age: Hence one common way of exploring in early
childhood is by asking questions. Question asking behavior is another important concern. The
questions asked at beginning are concerned with physical causality and then on diverse number
of categories. If they are not satisfied in the answer, they use to raise more and more questions in
chain until they are satisfied. Also they feel proud of themselves asking such questions with
aspirations.
IV. Early childhood is imitative age: At no other time in the lifespan is imitation of the speech
and actions of others more pronounced or prevalent than it is during early childhood. Imitative
nature develops creative talents.

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V. Early childhood is a creative age: In spite of the imitation tendency, most children show
more creativity in their play during early childhood than at any other time in their lives.
3.1.2. Physical Development in early childhood
 As per your experience, what are the physical characteristics of early childhood period:
Discuss and compare your answer with descriptions stated below?
 How is Physical Development in early childhood described

Physical development during early childhood stage is not as accelerated as that experienced
during infancy. Although physical development in preschoolers is dramatic, the development is
slower and more stable than during infancy. The average child grows 2 to 3 inches in height and
gains between 5 and 7 pounds a year during early childhood. As the preschool child grows
older, the percentage of increase in height and weight decreases with each additional year. Girls
are only slightly smaller and lighter than boys during these years, a difference that continues
until puberty.
Moreover: -
 Children begin to lose their baby fat, or chubbiness, around age 3.
 Toddlers soon acquire the leaner, more athletic look associated with childhood. Also, boys
tend to have more muscle mass than girls.
 The preschoolers’ physical proportions also continue to change, with their heads still being
disproportionately large, but less so than in toddlerhood.
 Three-year-old preschoolers may grow to be about 38 inches tall and weigh 32 pounds.
 By age 6, children reach a height of about 46 inches and weigh about 46 pounds.
 Brain growth, though slower than in infancy, continues at a rapid pace. In particular, synaptic
pruning and myelination continue to increase the brain’s specialization and efficiency of
function.
The physical development during this stage is influenced by factors such as nutrition, genetic
makeup, disease, psychological disturbance, family socio-economic status, etc.
3.1.2 Motor Development
By age 3, children can walk or run in a straight line and leap off the floor with both feet. 4 years
old can skip, hop on one foot, and catch a large ball with both hands (Corbin, 1993). By age 5,

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children are becoming rather graceful: like adults, they pump their arms when they run, and their
balance has improved to the point that some of them can learn to ride a bicycle.
It means physical skills continue to develop steadily. Generally some of the common motor skills
that are mastered at this period can be seen as: -
Hand skills: - like self-feeding skills, self-dressing skills, self-grooming skills, writing, coping,
ball throwing and catching.
Leg skills: - like running, hopping, skipping, jumping, tri-cycling, bicycling, and climbing.
3.1.3. Perceptual Development
What seems like pre-schoolers capabilities of perception?

Although infancy is the period when most basic perceptual competencies emerge, much
perceptual learning occurs later as children continue to explore objects in their environment and
to detect distinctive (invariant) features. These finer perceptual discriminations underlie many
new competencies, including children’s readiness to read. A distinctive feature is any cue that
differentiates one stimulus from all others. A 4 year old may not easily differentiate b from d
because the distinctive nature that discriminates these letters (the direction of curvature) is subtle
and not very meaningful to him/her.

3.1.4. Cognitive Development During early childhood

Reflective activities

 What is Piaget’s cognitive development stage that corresponds early childhood period?

 Explain the main characteristic that marks this stage of cognitive development?

 How is Cognitive Development During early childhood explained?

In this stage, children begin to represent the world with words images, and drawings. Symbolic
thought goes beyond simple connections of sensory information and physical action. Children
learn to think to use symbols and internal images-but their thinking is unsystematic and illogical.
Symbolic thought has a major role in the child’s cognitive potential and with the emergence of
symbolic thought, pretend play becomes possible.
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 Preoperational Period (Roughly 2 To 7 Years)
As we noted earlier, the emergence of mental representations in stage 6 of the sensori-motor
period provides a bridge to the preoperational period. These mental representations are made
possible by a more general developmental milestone: the semiotic function or ability to use one
object or event to stand for another. Stated more formally, a signifier evokes a significant.
There are two types of signifiers: symbols and signs. Symbols bear some similarity to the objects
or events they stand for whereas signs are arbitrarily related to certain events or objects.
The main characteristics of preoperational thought are discussed below.
I. Egocentrism.
Egocentrism does not refer to selfishness or arrogance, and Piaget does not use it in a derogatory
way. Rather, the term refers to (a) the incomplete differentiation of the self and the world,
including other people, and (b) the tendency to perceive, understand, and interpret the world in
terms of the self. Egocentrism is a form of centration, it refers to the fact that preoperational
thought tends to be centered on the ego or self. Because of cognitive immaturity, preschool
children are usually self-centered.
Characteristics of Egocentric Thinking
The following are features of egocentric thinking in this period.
a. Understanding of Cause and Effect –some effect is caused by specific event.
b. Transductive Reasoning-This is a form of associational thinking in which the child
overgeneralizes the results of past experiences.
c. Personalism-evident in the previous examples is the pre-schoolers’ tendency to personalize
events. Rather than being able to think in generalizing or universalizing terms, the pre-
schooler thinks in terms of him/herself.
II. Rigidity of thought
Piaget characterized preoperational thought as frozen. That means judging reality by surface
appearances rather than using reasoning.
One example is centration, the tendency to attend to or think about one salient feature of an
object or event and ignore other features. Centration and egocentrism are similar in that they both
reflect an inability to deal with several aspects of a situation at the same time and that they both
cause a biased view of the world. Centration is the tendency to focus or center on one aspect of
a problem or situation to the exclusion of all others, making it difficult for them to understand

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cause and effect.
Another Piaget’s best-known experiments involved conservation of number and quantity. In one
test preschool children were shown 10 vases, each with a single flower in it. The flowers were
removed and bunched together. When the flowers are closer together, the preschool child says
that there are fewer flowers. More recent experimental research documents earlier conservation
abilities (Gelman, 2006). Conservation is the principle that the amount of a substance is
unaffected by change in its appearance. Preschool children, do not correctly answer problems of
conservation including conservation of matter and conservation of number.
III. Semi-logical reasoning
As a young psychologist, Piaget questioned children about their beliefs concerning the world.
[Link] – Preoperational thinkers fail to recognize that reversing a process will restore
the original conditions or what over existed before the process occurred.
V) Static Reasoning – assuming that the world is unchanging always in the state in which they
currently encounter it.
VI) Focus on appearance – preoperational young children ignore all attributes except
appearance.
VII) Animism – is a manifestation of egocentric thought in which children believe that
everything in the world is alive, just as they are.
3.1.5. Language Development
Reflective Activity
 Discuss on the contexts of language learning for preschoolers?
 What are the potentials of pre-schooler language acquisition?
 How do we explain language Development during early childhood?

Improvement in speech and comprehension is an important matter. Skills in building up a

vocabulary, mastering pronunciation and combining words into sentences are in rapid growth.
The capacity of preschoolers increase in vocabulary, grammar and practical usage of language
with progress in age. For instance by the time the child is 6 years of age, he /she understands
41,000 vocabularies on average and acquiring 9 words a day. Children acquire vocabulary
building by following a predictable sequence according to parts of speech. For instance they
acquired first nouns, then verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, and lastly interrogatives.

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By the age of 3, children typically demonstrate extensive grammatical knowledge. Grammar
includes the structures, techniques and rules that languages use to communicative meaning. At
the beginning of the preschool period at age 3, the rapid acquisition of words between 2 and 3
has resulted in a vocabulary of roughly 1,000 words. Vocabulary continues to increase by about
50 words each month. By age 3, the child has learned the question form. His ability to ask “why”
and “what” gives him power over his own learning.

The responses of parents and caregivers to his frequent questions increase his vocabulary. The
normal 3-year-old’sspeech is usually clear and easy to understand. By age 4, he is speaking in
long sentences (8–10 words) that are grammatically complex and include relative and dependent
clauses. By age 7, it is estimated that the child understands about 14,000 words (Rice, 1989).

A 3- to 4-year-old arranges words in the right order according to the syntactical rules of his
language. Increasingly, he uses correct grammar, uses present and past verb tenses, and
constructs sentences with multiple clauses. Between 3 and 4, children make increasing use of
“connecting words,” including and, if, so, because, then, and but. Use of connecting words
reflects the preschooler’s more complex understanding of reality, because these words denote
relationships between things and events, conditional thinking, and causality (Bloom, 1998).
Over regulation - refers to the preschooler’s tendency to overuse rules of grammar, which itself
a sign of verbal sophistication.
Monologue speech – speech that occurs when children talk to themselves or others without
waiting a response.
Collective monologue –speech occurs when two children interact conversationally but in which
neither one listens nor responds to what the other says. Contexts of Language Learning for
Preschoolers includes; Private Speech, Symbolic Communication and Play.
There are several factors contribute to differences in the development of language skills.
Girls, middle - class children, first – borns, and single born children are more proficient in language
production than are boys, low – class children, later – borns, and children of multiple births. Mothers
tend to talk more to daughters than to sons, middle class parents tend to give children more elaborate
explanations than do lower class parent. Parents also talk more to first – borns and single borns than

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later born and multiple births.
3.1.6. Psycho-social Development.
In this developmental aspect, it is important that we foster understanding regarding;
-The emergence of the self during this period.
-The importance of play in a preschooler’s life.
-The effect of various modes of family interaction on the development of self – concept on the
child.
- Promote an understanding of gender identification and sex- role development during this
period.
3.1.7. Emotional development
 How do you describe emotions during early childhood?

Emotions are especially intense during early childhood. Children experience most of the
emotions experienced by adults like anger, fear, envy, jealousy, grief, affection, etc.
Children’s understanding of their own emotions helps them to guide their behavior in social
situations, and ultimately to enhance their social competence.
The major characteristics of children’s emotions during early childhood stage are:
 Emotions are frequent
 Emotions are expressed in relation to concrete objects and events
 Emotions are temporary (shifts his or her emotion rapidly)
 Emotional expressions in early childhood are intense irrespective of the intensity of the
stimulus
Children fail to hide their emotions but express them indirectly through different activities such
as crying, nail biting, thumb-sucking, speech difficulties etc.
 Self-Concept

What is self-concept?
It is our image of us. It is what we believe about who we are-our total picture of our abilities and
traits. Children may get feedback in their interaction with the physical and social environment
about who they are. Their evaluation about themselves may be positive or negative.
3.1.8. Social Development
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From 2 to 6 years, children learn how to make social contacts and how to get along with people
outside the home, especially children of their own age. They learn to adapt themselves to others
and how to cooperate in play activities. Follow up studies of groups of children report that the
social attitudes and behavior established during these early years usually persist with little
changes.
Early childhood is often called “pre-gang age.” Children who attend preschools- nursery
schools, day-care centers, or kindergartens- usually have decidedly larger number of social
contacts with peers and make better social adjustments than children who have not had these pre-
school experiences.
One of the many advantages of nursery school, day-care centers, and kindergarten is that they
provide social experiences under the guidance of trained teachers who promote enjoyable
contacts and try to see that no children are subjected to treatment that might condition them to
avoid social contacts. As a result, over all negative reactions to other children decrease.
Negative reactions to teachers, however, sometimes increase slightly as children become more
child-and less adult-oriented.
The tasks of social development for the pre-schoolers include: -
o Learning social skills,
o Pro-social behaviour and values (sharing, comforting, helping, controlling aggression)
o Learning how to play with peers and establish friendships.
 Relations with adults
With each succeeding years, young children spend less time with adults and derive less
enjoyment from being with them. At the same time, their interest in play mates of their own age
increases and the enjoyment from being with them gets stronger. With their growing desire to
be independent, children become resistant to adult authority.
 Relations with other children
From the age of 3 or 4, children begin to play together in groups, to talk to one another while
they play. The most common behavior of these groups consists of watching each other, holding
conversations, and making verbal suggestions.
Common forms of social behavior
Some of the common forms of social behavior in this period are:-
 Cooperation, Desire for social approval

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  Generosity (willingness to share with others),
 Friendliness, Unselfishness
 Sympathy- young children are incapable of sympathetic behaviour until they have been
in situations similar to those of a person in a distress. They express their sympathy by
trying to help or comfort a person in distress.
 Attachment behaviour- from foundations laid in babyhood, when the baby developed a
warm and loving attachment to the caregiver, young children transfer this pattern of
behaviour to other people & learn to establish friendships with them.
Unsocial behavior patterns
 Negativism- is resistance to pressures from others to behave in a certain way
 Aggression- is an actual act of hostility & expressed by both verbal /physical attack
 Quarrelling- is a dispute between two or more individuals
 Teasing (verbal attack) and bullying (physical attack)
 Prejudice- realizes that some people are different in appearance &behaviour from them
and that these differences are regarded by the social group as the signs of inferiority.
 Sex antagonism- avoiding association with a similar sex
 Egocentrism- the tendency to think and talk about themselves.
 Ascendant behaviour- the tendency to dominate others or to be “bossy.”
 Play
 Define play

The period of early child hood also called play years. Play is a pleasurable behavior performed for its
own sake dominated and controlled by the player. Play is the business of early childhood, and it
contributes to all domains of development. Through play, children stimulate the senses, learn how to
use their muscles coordinate sight with movement, gain mastery over their bodies, and acquire new
skills. Play increases affiliation with peers, releases tension, and increases exploration. Researchers
categorize children’s play by its content (what children do when they play) and based on the social
dimensions of play.
Social Dimension based classification of play
 List and describe the six kinds of social play
I. unoccupied behavior: the child does not seem to be playing, but watches anything of

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 momentary interest
II. Onlooker Behavior: the child spends most of the time watching other children play. The
onlooker talks to them, asking questions or making suggestions.
III. Solitary Independent Play: the child plays alone with toys that are different from those
used by nearby children and makes no effort to get close to them.
IV. Parallel play: the child plays independently, but among the children, playing the toys like
those used by the other children, but not necessarily playing with them in the same way.
V. Associative play: the child plays with other children. They talk about their play, borrow and
lend toys, follow one another, and try to control who may play in the group. All the children
play similarly if not identically, there is no division of labor and no organization around any
goal.
VI. Cooperative Play: the child plays in a group organized for some goal to make something,
play a formal game, or dramatize a situation. One or two children control who belongs to the
group and direct activities. By a division of labor, children take on different roles and
supplement each other’s efforts.
3.1.9. Moral Development
Reflective Activity
 Discuss on the characteristics and trends of moral development in children between 3 and 6 years of age.

 Discuss on the Freud, Piaget and Kohlberg’s perspective with regard to moral development of this period?

 Describe Moral Development during early childhood

Moral development is on a slow level. This is because the intellectual development has not
reached the point where the children can learn or apply the abstract principles of right and
wrong. Early Children may be told not to do something one day but the next day or even the day
after that, they may have forgotten what they were told not to do so. Thus what may appear
willful disobedience is often only a case of forgetting. They obey rules without using reason or
judgment because they regard adults in authority in Omni point. They judge all acts as right or
wrong in terms of the consequences rather than in terms of motivation behind them. They view a
matter a wrong one in punishment.
Learning to behave in a socially approved manner is a long, slow process which extends in to

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adolescence. Morality is one of the important developmental tasks of children. Before children
enter school, they are expected to be able to distinguish right from wrong in simple situations
and to lay the foundations for the development of a conscience.

During the preschool period, the child moves from a moral sense that is based on outside
approval to a more internalized sense of right and wrong. At 2and 3 years of age, children’s
sense of morality is determined by their wishes for love and approval and their avoidance of
disapproval, so they try to avoid behavior that will bring disapproval.
Preschoolers gradually move from compliance indirect response to parents’ requests and
commands to “committed compliance,” which involves identification with the parents’
perspective and the child’s conscious sense that he/she is intentionally doing what the parent
wants(Kochanska, 2002).During the preschool years, progression in cognitive and social
development makes possible an internalization of morality. The following are some
characteristics and trends of moral development in children between 3 and 6 years of age.
 Early pre-schoolers are unable to distinguish between intention and result: - Which means the
young preschool child looks only at the surface of behaviour and cannot understand motives.
 Increased self-monitoring: Preschool children are capable of articulating parental
expectations. As pre-schoolers consciously internalize standards, they begin to monitor their
own behaviour. Consequently, they usually know when they have violated a rule or acted
aggressively (Turiel, 2006).
 The Development of guilt emerges at about this period: - The capacity to feel bad “on the
inside” develops during the preschool years. Kagan (1984) argues that the emergence of guilt
is related to cognitive maturation.
 Rule-governed behaviour: With reminders and reinforcement, preschoolers can follow the
rules at school or home; however, they have difficulty abiding by the rules of a game, in part
because they cannot emotionally tolerate losing, and in part because the fantasies that games
evoke seem more important to them than the rules (4–6 years)
 Increasing importance of peer relationships helps children control negative or impulsive
behaviour because they want to maintain the friendship and approval of peers (4–6 years)
As to Piaget from 4 to 7 years of age, children display heteronomous morality, the first stage of
moral development in Piaget’s theory. Children think of justice and rules as unchangeable

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properties of the world, removed from the control of people. However, as to Kohlberg before age
9 most children use Level 1(Pre-conventional Morality): Children at this stage may make moral
decisions on the basis of self-interest or to avoid punishment or to gain reward.
Stage 1 (Punishment and obedience orientation):- In this stage the goodness or badness of an
act depends on its consequences. At this stage, morality is often tied to punishment. They are
aware off rules and the consequences for breaking them. The physical consequence of an action
determines its goodness or badness. For example, the child conforms to rules imposed by
authority figures to avoid punishment but may not consider an act wrong if it is not detected and
punished. Hence, moral thinking is often tied to punishment. The greater the harm done or the
more severe the punishment is, the more “bad” the act is.
Stage 2. Instrumental Relativist orientation: At this stage, in so far it satisfies your personal
needs, immediate interest, it is right. They assume that everyone has to look out for him or
herself and is obliged only to those who help him or her. The philosophy is one of returning
favors-“if you scratch my back I’ll scratch yours.”

3.2: Late Childhood Stage (6-11/12)

3.2.1. Characteristics of Late Childhood Stage
Brain storming Activity
 Discuss about the Characteristics of Late Childhood

Late childhood (sometimes called the elementary school years) extends from about 6 to 11 years
of age. Historically, late childhood has not been considered an important stage in human
development. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory labeled this period of life the latency stage,
a time when sexual and aggressive urges are repressed. Freud suggested that no significant
contributions to personality development were made during this period.

However, more recent theorists have recognized the importance of late childhood for the
development of cognitive skills, personality, motivation, and inter-personal relationships. During
late childhood, children learn the values of their societies. Thus, the primary developmental task
of middle and late childhood could be called integration, both in terms of development within the

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individual and of the individual within the social context.
Perhaps supporting the image of middle and late childhood as a latency stage, physical
development during middle and late childhood is less dramatic than in early childhood or
adolescence. Growth is slow and steady until the onset of puberty, when individuals begin to
develop at a much quicker pace. The age at which individuals enter puberty varies, but there is
evidence of a secular trend–the age at which puberty begins has been decreasing over time. In
some individuals, puberty may start as early as age eight or nine. Onset of puberty differs across
gender and begins earlier in females.
As with physical development, the cognitive development of middle and late childhood is slow
and steady. Children in this stage are building upon skills gained in early childhood and
preparing for the next phase of their cognitive development. Children's reasoning is very rule
based. Children are learning skills such as classification and forming hypotheses. While they are
cognitively more mature now than a few years ago, children in this stage still require concrete,
hands-on learning activities. Middle or late childhood is a time when children can gain
enthusiasm for learning and work, for achievement can become a motivating factor as children
work toward building competence and self-esteem. This stage is also a time when children
develop competence in interpersonal and social relationships. Children have a growing peer
orientation, yet they are strongly influenced by their family.

The social skills learned through peer and family relationships, and children's increasing ability
to participate in meaningful interpersonal communication, provide a necessary foundation for the
challenges of adolescence. Best friends are important at this age, and the skills gained in these
relationships may provide the building blocks for healthy adult relationships.

Children at this stage master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and math, achievement
becomes a more central theme, and self-control increases. In this period, children interact more
with the wider social world beyond their family. It is a troublesome age by which the children
are no longer willing to do what they are told to do. Older children, especially boys, are careless
about their clothes and other material possessions. Such an age is called as the sloppy age. Again
it is regarded as a quarrelsome age because we can see the boy child and girl child often indulged
in mini quarrels.

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It is at this stage that the children acquire the rudiments of knowledge that are considered as
essential for successful adjustment to adult life. Again there is a gang spirit in which the major
concern is the acceptance by the age-mates in a gang. There is a team spirit in play activities and
creative works. By 12, the child becomes sexually mature. For most young children, there is a
major change in the pattern of their lives. While adjusting to the new demands and expectations,
most children are in a state of disequilibrium. They are emotionally disturbed. Many changes
take place in attitudes, values and behavior.
The term middle and late childhood is generally used to cover almost the same period. The
middle childhood generally covers a period ranging from 6 years to 11/12. Physical development
during middle childhood or late childhood is generally uniform. This is a period of slow and
relatively uniform growth until the changes of puberty begins. A lot of growth is experienced by
both boys and girls during late childhood Social comparison. Individual identify, decision-
making and problem solving opportunities, use of analogies in explanation, differing reasoning
skills, and Leadership skills.
According to Erikson, children in middle and late childhood are very busy or industrious
(Erikson, 1982). They are constantly doing, planning, playing, getting together with friends, and
achieving. This is a very active time, and a time when they are gaining a sense of how they
measure up when compared with peers. It is the time period from the age of 6 until the age of 12
years. It is in late childhood that the first signs of puberty usually begin to appear. A lot of
growth is experienced by both boys and girls during late [Link] is a Play age, Creative age,
Gang age, Critical period, Elementary school age, quarrelsome age, Sloppy age and Troublesome
age
Characteristics of Late childhood
 The child develops play skills, school skills, self-help skills, social help skills, hand skills,
speech skills, pronunciation skills, vocabulary skills and health maintenance skill
 Unpleasant emotions are socially unacceptable
 Expression of anger in moodiness
 Heightened emotional expressions
 Learning to curb external emotional expressions
 Boys have more extensive peer groups than girls

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 Not satisfied with associates
 Aim for socio-metric status in age-mates
 Desire for leadership in peers
 Constructive play activities
 Exploring and collecting things
Developmental Hazards in Late childhood Includes;
Homeliness, Awkwardness, Physical Disabilities, Accidents, Sex-inappropriate, Body Build,
Obesity, Illness (physical hazards)
- Hazards associated with Personality Development, Family- Relationship, Sex-role typing,
interests, Moral, Conceptual Play, Social, Emotional, Speech (psychological hazards) .
Developmental Tasks in Late childhood Includes;
3.2.2. Physical Development
 Discuss about physical development in Late Childhood Stage

Physical Development during late childhood: the child can play sports and develop new skills,
are energetic, has a large appetite, height and weight increasing at a steady rate, increased
coordination and strength, body proportions becoming similar to an adult’s, and fine motor
coordination well-developed (e.g., writing and drawing skills).

In contrast to the rapid physical development during early childhood, children at this stage grow
more slowly and gradually. Muscular growth and better coordination enable children to ride
bicycle, run faster for long distance, participate in organized sports, write neatly with a pen, and
learn to acquire other skills that require greater strength and endurance. The child’s rate of
growth during late childhood is steady and occurs at a slower rate than during early childhood.
At age 6 children weigh an average of 48–49 pounds and are an average of 42 inches tall. By age
11, they have reached about 58 inches in height and weigh about 80 pounds. Boys are, on
average, slightly larger than girls until about age 11.
3.2.3. Motor Development
Gross motor skills:- running, climbing, kicking, and throwing—are well developed at the
beginning of late childhood and continue to improve throughout the period. Individual
differences in gross motor coordination become important because in late childhood athletic
ability becomes a measure of competence, in the eyes of both the individual child and his peers.

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Children with poor gross motor skills are often teased and suffer social rejection (Smyth &
Anderson, 2000).

Fine motor skills are also perfected during this period. Hand–eye coordination necessary for
writing and drawing improves during the early years of late childhood, and by third or fourth
grade children are often skilled at writing rapidly. Children with delayed or awkward fine motor
skills may have academic problems during the early elementary years as they struggle to write or
copy mathematics problems. Fine motor difficulties require careful assessment, because poor
handwriting or copying ability can be part of a pattern of neurological dysfunction based on
learning disabilities (Hooper, Swartz,Wakely, deKruif, &Montgomery, 2002).
3.2.3. Perceptual Development
School children aged from 6 to 8 years old generally able to detect the “distinctive features” that
differentiated the transformations from the “standard” stimulus.
That is to say, they resolve the pre-schooler difficulties and improve their perception in a better
way than before.
3.2.4. Psychosocial Development
This developmental stage occurs approximately in the elementary school years. Children’s
initiative brings them in contact with a wealth of new experience.
Emotional Development during late childhood: the child acts very independent and self-
assured but can be childish and silly at times, self is partly defined by school environment
(personality is more defined), likes affection from adults more independent but wants caregivers
to be present to help, can identify and label what s/he is feeling and can distinguish between
wishes, motives and actions
3.2.5. Social Development
Social Development during late childhood: the child participates in community activities,
enjoys working and playing with others, has friends plays mostly with same sex peers, can be
alone, strong group identity, learns to achieve and compete, and imitates and identifies with
same-sex adult.
The tasks of social development become more complex for school-age children. Entering the
larger world, symbolized by elementary school, the school-age child must learn its values, rules,
and routines. He/she must learn “appropriate” behavior in this new context through interactions

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with adult authorities as well as with peers.
In late childhood, even though parents remain central, other adults and peers take on increasing
importance .Nevertheless, parental influence continues to shape social development via
attachment history, the child’s internalization of parental values and expectations, parents’
encouragement or discouragement of activities outside the home, and parents’ monitoring of peer
relationships.
The following can be main features of social development in this period.
-Social Perspective Taking- During the school-age years, children become increasingly
sophisticated in understanding the perspectives of others. Beginning at age 6, the child becomes
more able to see and acknowledge another person’s different point of view.
A. Pro-social Behavior
The capacity for pro-social and altruistic behavior is not firmly present until late childhood. Pro-
social behavior requires the ability to take the other person’s point of view, to be able to deduce
the feelings of others, and to temporarily set aside one’s own needs and desires. Pro-social
behavior is supported by the internalization of moral standards, by the cognitive changes that
create increased objectivity and decreased egocentrism, and by exposure during the preschool
years to situations requiring the development of social skills.

I. Friendships
School-age children’s close friendships are based on mutual liking, sharing of interests, and
gender. Same-sex friendships become the norm as gender identification becomes more firmly
established and children take in culturally based gender expectations.
II. Peer Group, Social Reputation, and Self-Esteem
Social status becomes important during the late years, as children begin to reflect on their status
in the group. School-age children are increasingly aware of how others see them. It is very
common for school-age children to comment on one another’s performance in school.
Because social status becomes a defining part of the sense of self during the late years, children
with lower social reputations commonly experience status anxiety and suffer low self-esteem.
III. Influence of the Group
School-age children define themselves as group members, not just as individual friends. Groups
in late childhood are organized around gender and sex roles, ethnic/racial identification, common

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interests, and social status.
B. Antisocial behaviors
-Aggression, Bullying, and Victimization
Physical aggression is fairly common in pre-schoolers, especially boys. During late childhood
direct physical aggression diminishes greatly. The superior verbal and social skills of school-age
children allow them to ask, cajole, or, at times, threaten in order to get what they want.
-Bullying is responsible for much of the physical aggression observed in school-age children. It
begins to emerge in some children by age 5 or 6, but is most common in later middle childhood
and early adolescence (Smith & Brain, 2000). Male bullies use both physical and emotional
strategies in attacking victims, whereas female bullies tend to rely on relational aggression.
Although school children show a change in moral development when compared with the
preschoolers, they have the following common misbehaviors:
-Cheating:
- Truancy
- Stealing
- Lying
3.2.6. Cognitive Development
 How do you describe cognitive development during Late childhood stage
Intellectual Development during late childhood: the child is highly verbal (e.g., tells jokes,
makes puns), asks fact-oriented questions (e.g., wants to know “how,” “why” and “when”)can
deal with abstract ideas, judges success based on ability to read, write and do arithmetic, wants to
develop skills and become competent, enjoys projects that are task-oriented (e.g., sewing,
woodwork), learns to think systematically and generally about concrete objects, and learns the
concept of “past,” “present” and “future”.
In this stage, children can perform operations, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as
long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples. Children develop the capacity
to think systematically, but only when they can refer to concrete objectives and activities.
Concrete Operational Period (Roughly 7 to 11 Years).
During the concrete operational period, mental operations are applied to objects and events.
Children classify them, order them, and reverse them. Moreover:
By age 7 the child is moving away from egocentric thinking and beginning to use logic. The

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 child becomes aware that understanding based on an awareness of surface appearances is not
always correct.
Piaget’s famous experiments with mass and volume illustrate this shift in thinking. Piaget (1969)
described late childhood, specifically 7–12 years of age, as the phase of concrete operations.
His/her thinking involves reversibility, which Piaget posits as a hallmark of concrete operations.
Instead of being tied to his/her immediate impressions, a child can systematically think back over
what he/she has perceived.
The ability to perform mental operations flexibly, based on logic and reasoning, however,
requires another developmental advance: “decentration.” To think logically, the child must be
able to distinguish between the subjective and the objective.
Cognitive Advances in the Transition to late Childhood
-Spatial Orientation and Understanding of Space
-Time Orientation
-Seriation–the ability to arrange items in logical series.
-Visual Organizational Ability
- Part–Whole Discrimination: ability to move between details and overall perceptions and to
perceive multiple variables
During this period many concepts are acquired, including:
Reciprocity (Inversion) - refers to the idea that a change in one dimension of an object results
in a change in another dimension.
Classification- the concept that objects can be thought in terms of categories.
Class inclusion- the awareness that a particular object or person may belong to more than one
category.
Identity- the logical principle that certain characteristic of an object remains the same even if
other characteristics change.
3.2.7. Language Development
 Discuss about language development during late childhood
 During 6 to 11 years children continue to improve their vocabulary grammar and pragmatics.
 Children begin to demonstrate poems or they create jokes and tell them. They gradually develop a
more analytic, less restricted vocabulary.
 Improved vocabulary and improved understanding of logical relations
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 They improve the understanding of logical relations
 As egocentrism declines, communication skills and understanding of pragmatics improves.
Moreover, school age children;
By age 7 the child has a basic grasp of the syntactical and grammatical structures of his/her
native language. Compared to the preschool child who was learning basic language concepts and
rules, the school-age child is learning variations of the rules and more difficult constructions.
Vocabulary continues to increase at a rate of 3 to 5,000words a year during middle childhood
and by age 10; the average child has a receptive vocabulary of 40,000 words (Anglin, 1993;
Berman, 2007).
3.2.8. Moral Development
Elaborate moral development during late childhood

Moral Development during late childhood: begins to experience conflict between parents’
values and those of peers, has strong sense of fairness, rules are important and must be followed
(i.e., breaking rules is bad). Moral value resides in performing good and right roles. Stage 2.
That is individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange.

Piaget & Kohlberg’s as well as Freud & Damon School age moral development
For Piaget from 7 to 10 years of age, children are in a transition showing some features of the
first stage of moral reasoning and some stages of the second stage, autonomous morality - is a
morality when child becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people and that, in judging
an action, one should consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.
For Kohlberg’s school children moral reasoning is increasingly based on the application of Level
2 (Conventional Morality): Children at this level conform to the standard, expectation of the
society (a desire to maintain social order).
Stage 3. Interpersonal concordance Orientation: At this stage, the reason for doing right is
the need to be a good person (concerned about living up to “good boy” and “good girl”
stereotypes. They value the intentions and feeling of others. Good behavior means having good
motives and interpersonal feeling such as love, empathy, trust, and concern for others.
Stage 4. Authority Maintaining Orientation: Now, the emphasis is on obeying laws,
respecting authority and performing one’s duties so that the social order is maintained.
Something is considered as right or wrong because of law, religious order, or the interests of the
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majority.

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