SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOTES

1 Zener Diode

Definition: A special-purpose semiconductor diode explicitly designed for reverse bias

operation.
Inventor: C. Zener

BASICS & CONSTRUCTION

• Doping: Heavily doped p- and n- sides.

• Depletion Region: Extremely thin (< 10-6 m).

• Electric Field: Very high (5 × 106 V/m) even at a low reverse bias (~5V).

PHYSICS OF BREAKDOWN

• Zener Voltage (V ): The specific reverse bias voltage where current increases sharply.
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• I-V Characteristic: Post-breakdown, the voltage remains constant despite a wide range of
current changes.

• Mechanism: Internal Field Emission (Field Ionisation).

• Process: The high electric field pulls valence electrons from host atoms; electrons then
accelerate from the p-side to the n-side.

• Field Requirement: Approximately 106 V/m is required for ionisation.

VOLTAGE REGULATION (CIRCUITRY)

• Primary Application: Acts as a DC voltage regulator for fluctuating rectified outputs.

• Circuit Setup: Connected in reverse bias in parallel with the load; a series resistor (R ) is
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included to limit current.

• Design Rule: For stable load regulation, the Zener current must be significantly larger
than the load current.
2 Photodiode

Definition: A special purpose p-n junction diode featuring a transparent window that allows
light to strike the diode.
Operating Mode: Strictly operated under reverse bias .
Application: Used as a photodetector to read and detect optical signals.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

1. Photon Absorption: Occurs when incident light energy (hν) is greater than the energy gap

(E ) of the semiconductor (hν > E ).

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2. Carrier Generation: Photons generate electron-hole (e-h) pairs, specifically in or near the
depletion region.

3. Separation: The junction's intrinsic electric field separates the carriers before they can
recombine—electrons sweep to the n-side, holes to the p-side.

4. Current Flow: This separation gives rise to an electromotive force (emf). When a load is
connected, current flows.

KEY CHARACTERISTICS

• Proportionality: The magnitude of the photocurrent is directly proportional to the incident

light intensity.

• Measurement: Reverse bias current is typically measured in microamperes (μA).

WHY REVERSE BIAS?

• Sensitivity: It is much easier to observe changes in current relative to light intensity in

reverse bias compared to forward bias.

• Fractional Change: The fractional change in minority carrier density (Δp/p) due to light is

significantly higher and more measurable than the fractional change in majority carriers (Δn/
n).
• Dominance: Because reverse bias current is strictly minority carrier dominated, it is highly
sensitive to photo-effects.
3 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Definition: A heavily doped p-n junction that emits spontaneous radiation.

Operating Mode: Functions under forward bias .
Encapsulation: Encased in a transparent cover so emitted light can escape.

WORKING MECHANISM

1. Carrier Injection: Forward bias pushes electrons (n→p) and holes (p→n), increasing
minority carrier concentration at the junction boundary.

2. Recombination: Excess minority carriers recombine with majority carriers near the junction.

3. Photon Emission: Energy is released as photons with an energy equal to or slightly less
than the band gap (E ).
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4. Intensity Control: Light intensity initially increases with forward current until it hits a
maximum efficiency point.

V-I CHARACTERISTICS

• Threshold Voltage: Similar to standard Si diodes but requires much higher threshold
voltages, which vary based on the color of light.

• Reverse Bias Caution: Breakdown voltages are very low (typically ~5V). High reverse
voltages must be avoided to prevent destroying the diode.

MATERIALS & APPLICATIONS

Band Gap (E ) /
Material g Application
Specs

Gallium Arsenide Phosphide > 1.8 eV (Minimum for Visible light colors (Red,
(GaAsP) visible) Yellow, etc.)

Infrared LEDs (Remote

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) ~1.4 eV
controls)

• Common Uses: Remote controls, burglar alarms, optical communication, and modern
replacements for incandescent lamps (white LEDs).
ADVANTAGES OVER CONVENTIONAL LAMPS

• Efficiency: Low operational voltage and extremely low power consumption.

• Speed: Instant action with zero warm-up time and fast on-off switching capability.

• Durability: Long life span and highly rugged construction.

• Light Quality: Emits nearly monochromatic light with a very narrow bandwidth (100 Å - 500
Å).

4 Solar Cell

Definition: A p-n junction that generates an emf when solar radiation falls on it, functioning
via the photovoltaic effect .
Biasing: No external bias is applied.

STRUCTURE

• Layers: A thick p-Si wafer (~300 μm) with an ultra-thin n-Si layer (~0.3 μm) grown on top.

• Front Contact: Metallised finger electrodes cover <15% of the surface to allow maximum
light entry.

• Back Contact: A full metal coating covers the entire p-side.

• Junction Area: Kept significantly larger than a standard photodiode to capture maximum
solar power.

WORKING PRINCIPLE (THREE-STEP PROCESS)

1. Generation: Incident light (hν > E ) creates electron-hole (e-h) pairs near the junction.
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2. Separation: The junction's built-in electric field sweeps electrons to the n-side and holes to
the p-side.

3. Collection: Carriers are collected by the front and back contacts. The p-side becomes
positive and the n-side becomes negative, establishing a photovoltage.

I-V CHARACTERISTICS

•V
oc (Open Circuit Voltage): The voltage measured when no current is drawn from the cell.
•I
sc (Short Circuit Current): The current flowing when the terminals are directly shorted.

MATERIAL SELECTION CRITERIA

• Ideal Band Gap: Close to 1.5 eV for maximum solar energy conversion efficiency.
 • Preferred Materials: Silicon (~1.1 eV) and GaAs (~1.53 eV).

• GaAs vs. Si: GaAs is frequently preferred due to its higher absorption coefficient, despite
having a slightly higher band gap than Si.

• Selection Factors: Optimal band gap (1.0–1.8 eV), high optical absorption, excellent
electrical conductivity, raw material availability, and manufacturing cost.

• Note on Low E Materials: Materials like Lead Sulfide (PbS, ~0.4 eV) are avoided. They
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absorb most light at the absolute top layer, preventing necessary e-h generation near the
actual depletion region.

APPLICATIONS

• Powering electronic devices in satellites and space vehicles.

• Calculators, watches, and low-power portable electronics.