4.
CHAPTER 4
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
CONTENTS
1 Characteristics and classification of living organisms
1.1 Characteristics of living organisms
1.2 Concept and uses of classification systems
1.3 Features of organisms
2 Organisation of the organism
2.1 Cell structure
2.2 Size of specimens
3 Movement into and out of cells
3.1 Diffusion
3.2 Osmosis
3.3 Active transport
4 Biological molecules
4.1 Biological molecules
5 Enzymes
5.1 Enzyme action
6 Plant nutrition
6.1 Photosynthesis
6.2 Leaf structure
7 Human nutrition
7.1 Diet
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Biological Molecules
Often made of repeating subunits, joined together by chemical bonds
Chains are called polymers and their subunits are called monomers
polymers are long chains of repeating subunits
biological molecules are
monomer made of chemical elements
(predominantly carbon)
The four classes of biological molecules
Carbohydrates
Lipids (fats and oils)
Proteins
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Carbohydrates
Chemical elements - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Molecules - glycogen, starch, cellulose
Sub-units - glucose
STARCH GLYCOGEN CELLULOSE
GLUCOSE
Glucose molecules combine, to form the polysaccharides starch, cellulose and glycogen
Polysaccharides are long chain carbohydrate molecules
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Carbohydrates
Chemical elements - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Molecules - glycogen, starch, cellulose
Sub-units - glucose
Plants use starch to store sugar Starch cannot pass freely through cell
molecules that can later be metabolised membranes (and so remains in the cytoplasm)
to release energy
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Carbohydrates
Chemical elements - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Molecules - glycogen, starch, cellulose
Sub-units - glucose
Animals use glycogen to store sugar Glycogen is stored in the cytoplasm of muscle
molecules (glucose) that can later be and liver cells
metabolised to release energy
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Carbohydrates
Chemical elements - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Molecules - glycogen, starch, cellulose
Sub-units - glucose
Cellulose is a tough, fibrous substance Plant cell walls are made of cellulose
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Proteins
Chemical elements - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen (sulfur, phosphorus)
Examples - hormones, enzymes, cell membranes, organelles
Sub-units - amino acids
AMINO ACIDS
Proteins are long chains of smaller sub-units called amino acids
There are 20 different types of amino acids, and each protein has its own specific sequence
All amino acids are made of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
Some contain sulphur and phosphorus
as well
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Types of proteins include enzymes, hormones and heamoglobin
Proteins also form the major structural components of all cells, including cell membranes,
mitochondria, ribosomes and chromosomes
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Lipids (fats and oils)
Chemical elements - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Molecules - triglycerides
Sub-units - fatty acids, glycerol
TRIGLYCERIDE
FATTY ACID
GLYCEROL
FATTY ACID
FATTY ACID
A triglyceride is made up of three fatty acids joined with one molecule of glycerol
Fats are solid at room
temperature. Oils are liquid.
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Chemical tests
Iodine solution test for starch
1. Mix starch powder and warm water in a test tube to make a starch suspension
2. Add a few drops of iodine solution
3. In the presence of starch, iodine changes colour from brown to blue-black
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Chemical tests
Benedict’s solution test for reducing sugars
1. Add glucose solution and Benedict‘s solution to a test tube
2. Heat the test tube by adding to a beaker of boiling water
3. Depending on the amount of sugar in the solution the colour will change from blue
to green to yellow to red
Colour changes gradually from blue to red
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Chemical tests
Biuret test for proteins
1. Add albumen solution (2cm³), dilute sodium hydroxide (2cm³) and copper sulphate
solution (2cm³) to a test tube
2. In the presence of protein, the biuret reagent changes colour from pale blue to
purple
Albumen is the protein found in egg white
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Chemical tests
Ethanol emulsion test for fats and oils
1. Shake two drops of cooking oil with 5cm³ of ethanol in a test tube until the fat
dissolves
2. Pour the solution into a test tube containing a few cm³ of water
3. A milky white emulsion will form
Milky emulsion
indicates lipids
SHAKE
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
Chemical tests
DCPIP test for vitamin C
1. Place 2cm³ of 0.1% DCPIP solution (blue dye) in a test tube
2. Add 2cm³ of fresh lemon juice to a syringe
3. Add the lemon juice to the solution one drop at a time
4. The blue solution will quickly become colourless
Repeat the test with orange juice and observe that it takes more drops to decolourise the dye.
This is because orange justice contains less vitamin C than lemon juice.
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
DNA
The structure of a DNA molecule
Two strands of nucleotides, coiled together to form a double helix
Each strand contains chemicals called bases
Bonds between pairs of bases hold the strands together
The bases always pair up in the same way (A pairs with T and C pairs with G)
DOUBLE
HELIX
DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid
Chapter 4 - Biological molecules 4.1 - Biological molecules
DNA
ONE NUCLEOTIDE
DEOXYRIBOSE (SUGAR)
PHOSPHATE
BASE