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Measurement of Solar Radiation:

Solar radiation data are measured mainly by the following instruments:
(1) Pyranometer: A pyranometer is designed to measure global radiation, usually on a horizontal surface,
but can also be used on an inclined surface. When shaded from beam radiation by using a shading ring, a
pyranometer measures diffused radiation.
(2) Pyrheliometer: An instrument that measures beam radiation by using a long narrow tube to collect only
beam radiation from the sun at normal incidence.
(3) Sunshine Recorder: It measures the sunshine hours in a day.

i) Pyrometer:

A pyrometer is an instrument which measure’s either global or diffuse radiation falling on a horizontal surface
over a hemispherical field of view. A sketch of one type of pyrometer as installed for measuring global
radiation is shown in the following figure. Pyrometer consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed
to solar radiation. It’s temperature increases until the rate of heat gain by solar radiation equals the rate of heat
loss by convection, conduction and radiation. The hot junctions of thermopile are attached

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to the black surface, while the cold junctions are located under a guard plate so that they do not receive the
radiation directly. As a result an elf is generated. This emf which is usually in the range of 0 t0 10mv can be
read, recorded or integrated over a period of time and is a measure of global radiation.
The pyrometer can also be used for measurement of diffuse radiation. This is done by mounting it at the centre
of a semi- circular shading ring. The shading ring is fixed in such a way that its plane is parallel to the plane
of path of sun’s daily movement across the sky and it shades the thermopile element and two glass domes of
pyranometer at all the times from direct sun shine. Consequently, the pyranometer measures only the diffuse
radiation received from the sky.
ii) Pyrheliometer
This is an instrument which measures beam radiation falling on a surface normal to the sun’s rays. In contrast
to a pyranometer, the black absorber plate (with hot junctions of a thermopile attached to it) is located at the
base of a collimating tube. The tube is aligned with the direction of the sun’s rays with the help of a two-axis
tracking mechanism and alignment indicator. Thus, the black plate receives only beam radiation and a small
amount of diffuse radiation falling within the acceptance angle of the instrument

1. Tube blackened on inside surface

2. Baffle,
3. Alignment indicator
4. Black absorber plate
5. Thermopile junctions
6. Two-axis tracking mechanism

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Sun Shine Recorder:

The duration of bright sun shine in a day is measured by means of a sunshine recorder. The sun’s Rays are
focused by a glass sphere to a point on a card strip held in a groove in a spherical bowl mounted
concentrically with the sphere. Whenever there is bright sunshine, the image formed is intense enough to
burn a spot on the cord strip. Throughout the day as the sun moves across the sky, the image moves along
the strip. Thus, a burnt trace whose length is proportional to the duration of sunshine is obtained on the strip.

SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTOR

 Solar Thermal Collectors are special kind of heat exchangers that transform solar radiation energy to
internal energy of the transport medium.
 A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfer the energy to a fluid passing in
contact with it.
 Utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors.
 Itis an integral part of any solar thermal system.
 A collector is a device that absorbs the incoming solar radiation, converts it into heat, transfers this heat to
the fluid (air, oil or water) flowing through the collector. This is then sent to the hot water or space
conditioning equipment or thermal storage tank for use at night or on cloudy days.

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TYPESOF SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTOR
 These are either
(a) Non-Concentrating – the collector area (that intercepts the radiation) is same as the absorber
area (that which absorbs the radiation). In this type, the whole solar panel absorbs light.
(b) Concentrating – the collector or interceptor area is bigger than the absorber area.

TYPESOF SOLARTHERMAL COLLECTOR

For domestic/industrial water and space heating purposes, solar thermal collectors are classified as:
1. Flat Plate Solar Collectors
2. Evacuated Tube Solar Collectors

FLATPLATE SOLARCOLLECTORS

 Flat plate collectors were developed by Hottel and Whillier in the 1950s
The flat-plate solar collectors are the most fundamental and commonly used solar-powered domestic hot
water systems where the temperature demand is low.
The idea behind this technology is that the Sun heats a dark flat surface, which collects as much energy
as possible, and then the energy is transferred to water, air, or other fluid for further use.
The flat plate collector therefore, is basically a black surface that is placed in a convenient path of the sun.

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GENERAL DESCRIPTIONOF LIQUIDFLAT PLATE COLLECTORS

 The basic parts that make up a conventional liquid flat-plate collector are
(i) the absorber plates
(ii) the tubes fixed to the absorber plate through which the liquid to be heated flows
(iii) the transparent cover
(iv) the collector box.
 The main advantage of a flat-plate collector is that it utilises both the beam and diffuse components of the
solar radiation.
 In addition, because of its simple stationary design, it requires little maintenance.
 Its principal disadvantage is that because of the absence of optical concentration, the area from which
heat is lost is large.
 As a result, the collection efficiency is generally low.
 The liquid heated is generally water. However, sometimes mixtures of water and ethylene glycol are
used if ambient temperatures below OOC are likely to be encountered.
 The absorber plate is usually made from a thin metal sheet ranging in thickness from 0.2 to 0.7 mm,
while the tubes, which are also of metal, range in diameter from 1 to 1.5 cm. They are soldered, brazed
or pressure bonded to the bottom of the absorber plate with the pitch ranging from 5 to 12 cm.
 In some designs, the tubes are bonded to the top or are in-line and integral with the absorber plate.
 The metal most commonly used, both for the absorber plate and the tubes, is copper.
 The header pipes, which lead the liquid in and out of the collector and distribute it to the tubes, are made
of the same metal as the tubes and have slightly larger diameters (2 to 2.5 cm).
 The cover should be made of a material which is highly transparent to incoming solar radiation and at
the same time, opaque to long wavelength re-radiation emitted by the absorber plate.
 Glass with a low ferric oxide content satisfies these requirements.
 Toughened glass of 4- or 5-mm thickness is the most favoured material.
 This type of glass is able to withstand thermal shock Aswell as the impact of objects which may fall on
the collector faces.
 The usual practice is to have one cover with a spacing ranging from 1.5 to 3 cm between the cover and
the absorber plate.
 The bottom and sides are usually insulated by mineral wool, rock wool or glass wool with a covering of
aluminium foil and has a thickness ranging from 2.5 to 8 cm.
 The whole assembly is contained within a box which is tilted at a suitable angle.
 The collector box is usually made of aluminium with an epoxy coating on the outside for protection.
 The face areas of most commercially available collectors are around 2 m2with the length (along the
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sloping direction) being usually larger than the width.
 In the last few years, the use of plastic materials for the absorber plate, the tubes as well as the cover has
increased.
 This is particularly true for applications involving lower temperatures up to 600 or 700C.
 Initially plastics were not used because they degraded on exposure to sunlight.
 They also have low thermal conductivities and high coefficients of expansion as compared to metals.
 However, advances in polymer technology have resulted in the development of suitable plastic materials
which can withstand long exposures to sunlight.
 Plastics have the advantages of being lighting weight and easy to manufacture.
 They also cost less and require less energy input for their manufacture than metals like copper and
aluminium.
 However, it has to be remembered that they generally originate from fossil fuels.
 The present rate of production of liquid flat-plate collectors in the world, Aswell as in India, is low.
 However, itis increasing rapidly.
 About 1000000 m of collector area has been installed in India up to 2004, the typical cost of a good
quality collector being in the range of Rs4000 to 4500 per m2.

SOLAR ENERGY:
 Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. The power from the Sun intercepted by the
earth is approximately1.8×1011 MW which is many thousands of times larger than the present consumption
rate on the earth of all commercial energy sources. Thus, in principle solar energy could supply all the
present & future energy needs of the world on a continuing basis. This makes it one of the most promising of
the unconventional energy sources.
 Solar energy is received in the form of radiation, can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms
of energy, such as heat & electricity. This energy is radiated by the Sun as electromagnetic waves of which
99% have wave lengths in the range of 0.2 to 4 micro meters.
 Solar energy reaching the top of the Earth ‘s atmosphere consists about 8% U.V radiation, 46% of visible
light, 46% Infrared radiation.

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Classification of methods for solar energy utilization:

Merits of solar energy:

 It is an environmental clean source of energy
 It is free & available in adequate quantities in all most all parts of world where people live.

Demerits of solar energy:

 It is a dilute source of energy because even in hottest region the radiation flux is available only 1 KW/m2
& total radiation over a day is 7 KW/m2.
 These are low values from the point of view of technological utilization.
 It is required large collecting areas are required in many applications & these results increase of cost.
 Solar energy availability varies widely with time; it occurs because of the day-night cycle & also
seasonally because of the Earth ‘s orbit around the Sun [even local weather condition.

Solar applications
 Solar heating
 Solar cooling
 Solar pumping
 Solar furnace
 Solar production of hydrogen
 Solar green houses
 Solar distillation
 Solar energy
 Solar cooking

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Photovoltaic (PV) or Solar Cell:
It is a device that converts solar energy into electric current using the photoelectric effect.
Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels, composed of number of solar cells
containing photovoltaic material. Photovoltaics are made up of semiconductors & it converts solar
radiation into direct current electricity.

Working Principle

• photo-voltaic cell is made up of semi-conductor materials like silicon one layer has n-type
silicon and another layer have P-type silicon and interface between n-type and p-type silicon is
called P-n junction.
• In a P-n junction semi-conductor material, electrons from n-side tend to move towards P-side
rapidly combine with large number of holes concentration.
• Similarly, holes from P-side tend to move towards n-side rapidly combine with large number of
electron concentration, this charge distribution across the junction gives rise to electrical field.
• When a P-n junction semi-conductor material exposed to the sunlight some of the solar photons
will have a tendency to dislodge free-electrons from its fixed position in the material.
• Ejected free-electrons tend to move towards p-side and this flow negatively charged electrons constitute an
electric current.

Advantages
• very little research money has been invested in the development of solar cells.
• It gives long duration period.
• Operating costs are extremely low compared to existing power technologies

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Applications
• These solar cells are used to operate irrigation pumps
• Navigational signals, rail road crossing.
• To operate calculator & watches.

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