Week 1: Introduction to Research
Key Concepts & Definitions
● Research: A process used to understand the world beyond simple description, common
sense, or anecdote. It is the systematic investigation of hypothetical propositions about
presumed relations among natural phenomena.
● The Research Process: An on-going series of actions (The Question $\rightarrow$ The
Process $\rightarrow$ The Answer) intended to achieve a specific result by following
established procedures.
● Research Quality: A measure defined by the reliability, validity, credibility, and ethical
practice of a study.
Characteristics of Research
● Structured and Purposeful: Research is always planned with a specific aim, whether
for practical application or abstract knowledge.
● Rigorous: It must be strictly and scrupulously planned and conducted, particularly
regarding design and ethics.
● Robust and Defensible: Findings must be strong enough to withstand criticism from
peers or markers.
● Systematic: This means that every person, case, or data set examined is treated in
exactly the same way.
Quality Criteria in Research
● Reliability (Dependability/Replicability): The extent to which results can be replicated
by other researchers using the same methods.
● Validity: The degree to which the researcher is actually measuring what they claim to be
measuring and whether the data is relevant to the research question.
● Credibility: The believability of interpretations, tested through transparency and
sometimes feedback from participants.
● Generalizability (Transferability): The extent to which findings are true for a wider
population or a different context.
The Goals of Research in Psychology
1. Description: Identifying regularly occurring sequences of events and classifying
behaviors.
2. Prediction: Identifying regular relationships to forecast future behavior (e.g., SAT scores
predicting college GPA).
3. Explanation: Determining the cause of a behavior (causality).
4. Application: Applying principles learned through research to change people's lives for
the better.
Week 2: Choosing Methods
The Qualitative vs. Quantitative Debate
● Quantitative: Concerned with structured data represented numerically and analyzed
statistically. It typically follows a positivist approach, assuming the social world is "real"
and measurable.
● Qualitative: Concerned with stories, subjective understandings, feelings, and beliefs
expressed in participants' own words. It follows an interpretivist approach, assuming
reality is a social construct.
● Mixed Methods: Combining qualitative and quantitative methods to provide a holistic
picture of a specific research project.
Key Frameworks & Relationships
● Triangulation: A measure of quality where different types of data or sources are
collected to address the same question, allowing the researcher to cross-check findings.
● Primary Data: Data collected directly by the researcher for their specific project.
● Secondary Data: Data used by a researcher that has already been produced by others
(e.g., official statistics, organizational records).
○ Advantages: Large sample sizes, cheap, allows for longitudinal study.
○ Disadvantages: Records may be inaccurate, and the researcher has no control
over the original context or quality.
Week 3: Research Design, Questions, and Hypotheses
Types of Research Questions
● Exploratory: Initial attempts to understand a phenomenon with limited prior knowledge.
● Descriptive: Quantifying an issue (e.g., "How big is it?").
● Explanatory: Asking "why" something happened; focused on causes and effects.
● Evaluative: Assessing the value or effectiveness of a social practice.
Hypotheses and Relationships
● Hypothesis: A testable assertion about a relationship between concepts; it is something
to be proved or disproved rather than an absolute statement of reality.
● Causal Relationship: The assertion that a change in concept "A" causes a change in
concept "B".
● Associative Relationship: The belief that two concepts are related, but not necessarily
that one causes the other.
Operational Definitions: The "Giraffe and Tortoise"
● Operational Definitions: Workable definitions that turn abstract concepts into
measurable indicators.
● The Giraffe: Taking a "big picture" overview of the concept (e.g., "poverty and crime").
● The Tortoise: Ground-level construction of the detail to make the intangible measurable.
● Pilot-testing: A trial run of definitions on a small sample to ensure they result in usable,
consistent data.
Major Research Designs
● Experimental: Uses randomized control trials to determine effects.
● Quasi-experimental: Used when "naturally" different groups are identified, with one
used as a control.
● Cross-sectional: Collecting data from more than one case at one particular point in
time.
● Longitudinal: Research designed to follow cases over time (e.g., Cohort studies
following a specific age group).
● Case Study: In-depth study of a single instance, which may be critical (testing theory),
extreme (unique), or representative (typical).
Week 4: Reviewing the Literature
Purpose of a Literature Review
● To critically analyze the current state of knowledge and identify "gaps".
● To learn about past theoretical and methodological approaches.
● To put research into context and learn the "language" of the topic.
Types of Literature
● Peer-Reviewed (Refereed) Journals: Articles evaluated by experts before publication;
considered the highest quality academic source.
● Grey Literature: Documents produced by organizations (reports, policy papers) that are
not generally in the public domain.
● Official Documents: Government publications such as Acts of Parliament or White
Papers.
Search and Evaluation
● Keywords: Specific terms used to tell a database what to look for; narrowing searches
with "AND" or widening them with "OR".
● Provenance: Evaluating literature by its source and purpose (who produced it and why).
Week 5: Writing Style, Referencing, and Proposals
The Research Proposal
● Purpose: To persuade someone (a tutor or funder) that the researcher is capable of
completing the project.
● Basic Structure: Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology/Methods, Dissemination,
and Timetable.
Writing for Research
● Reports: Designed to convey information quickly to a specific audience (the most
important consideration); structured as Beginning (context), Middle (present/future), and
End (recommendations).
● Dissertations: In-depth studies with specific preliminaries (Abstract/Contents), a main
body (Introduction, Lit Review, Methods, Findings, Discussion, Conclusion), and end
matter (Appendices, References).
● Rules for Writing: Aim for grammatical precision, avoid jargon, use concise language,
and ensure writing embraces diversity (e.g., avoiding sexist language).
Plagiarism
● Presenting someone else's work as your own.
● Includes "word for word" copying, close paraphrasing without credit, and using images or
ideas without attribution.
Week 6: Ethics in Research
Core Ethical Principles
● Informed Consent: Ensuring participants understand the purpose, risks, and their right
to withdraw freely at any time.
● Protection from Harm: Participants must be safe from physical and psychological
harm; researchers also have a right to safety.
● Confidentiality and Anonymity: Participants should generally not be identified, and
their data must be kept secure.
● Power Relationships: The researcher must be aware if they are seen as "powerful"
(due to expertise or age), which could influence participant responses.
Vulnerable Groups and Dilemmas
● Vulnerable Groups: Those requiring extra care include children (under 16), the elderly
living alone, those with disabilities, and individuals with mental health issues.
● Cultural Considerations: Accounting for language barriers and cultural norms, such as
deference to elders or specific gender roles.
● Illegal Behavior: Researchers must decide at the design stage whether they will report
illegal acts disclosed by participants; disclosure of child abuse or terrorism is often
legally required.
Summary for Quick Revision
● Quality research is defined by Reliability (replicability) and Validity (measuring the
right thing).
● Quantitative research uses numbers/structured tools; Qualitative research uses
words/subjective accounts.
● Hypotheses are testable assertions, while Operational definitions make abstract
concepts measurable.
● Literature reviews find "gaps" and provide context for new research.
● The Audience is the most vital consideration when writing research reports.
● Ethics center on informed consent, safety, and protecting vulnerable participants.