Comprehensive Study on Nervous Tissue: Structure,

Function, and Physiology

1. Introduction to the Nervous System

The nervous system is the master controlling and communicating system of the
body. Every thought, action, and emotion reflects its activity. It uses electrical impulses to
interpret and respond to what is happening inside and outside the body.
1.1 Basic Functions
The nervous system performs three overlapping functions:
 Sensory Input: Collecting information. Receptors monitor changes (stimuli)
occurring inside and outside the body. This information is carried by afferent
neurons.
 Integration: Processing and evaluating information. The system processes
sensory input and decides what should be done at each moment. This occurs via
association interneurons.
 Motor Output: Initiating a response. The nervous system activates effector organs
(muscles or glands) to cause a response via efferent neurons.

2. Organization of the Nervous System

The nervous system is classified based on its structure (anatomical divisions) and
function (how signals flow).
2.1 Structural Organization
 Central Nervous System (CNS): Consists of the brain and spinal cord. It acts as
the integration and command center.
o Tracts: Collections of axons within the CNS.
o Nuclei: Clusters of neuron cell bodies within the CNS.
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Consists of all nervous tissue outside the
CNS, primarily nerves (bundles of axons) and ganglia (clusters of cell bodies).
o Cranial Nerves: Carry impulses to and from the brain.
o Spinal Nerves: Carry impulses to and from the spinal cord.
2.2 Functional Divisions of the PNS
 1. Somatic Nervous System (SNS): Conducts impulses from the CNS to skeletal
muscles. It is often referred to as the voluntary nervous system.
2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Regulates involuntary activities (smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands). It has two subdivisions:
o Sympathetic: "Fight or flight".
o Parasympathetic: "Rest and digest".
3. Enteric Nervous System (ENS): The "brain of the gut," regulating the GI tract.

3. Histology: Neurons and Neuroglia

Nervous tissue consists of two principal types of cells: Neurons and Neuroglia
(supporting cells).
3.1 Neuroglia (Supporting Cells)
Neuroglia are smaller than neurons and capable of mitosis (mitotic), which is why
most CNS tumors (gliomas) originate from these cells.
CNS Glial Cells:
 Astrocytes: The most abundant and versatile. They form the blood-brain barrier,
regulate $K^{+}$ levels, and support neurons.
 Microglia: Phagocytic cells that monitor neuron health and remove dead cells or
debris.
 Ependymal Cells: Line the cavities of the brain and spinal cord; they produce and
help circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) using cilia.
 Oligodendrocytes: Wrap their cytoplasmic extensions around CNS axons to form
myelin sheaths.
PNS Glial Cells:
 Schwann Cells (Neurolemmocytes): Form myelin sheaths around peripheral
axons. They are vital to peripheral nerve regeneration.
 Satellite Cells: Surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia; they regulate
nutrient/waste exchange and provide electrical insulation.

4. Neuron Anatomy and Characteristics

Neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system.
4.1 Key Characteristics
  Excitability: Ability to respond to a stimulus.
 Conductivity: Ability to transmit electrical signals (Action Potentials).
 Secretion: Release of neurotransmitters.
 Extreme Longevity: Can function for over 100 years.
 Amitotic: Most mature neurons lose the ability to divide.
4.2 Structural Components
 Cell Body (Soma/Perikaryon): The biosynthetic center. Contains the nucleus and
Nissl bodies (chromatophilic substance/rough ER).
 Dendrites: Short, tapering, highly branched extensions that serve as the main
receptive/input zone.
 Axon: A single process that conducts impulses away from the cell body (the
transmission zone).
o Axon Hillock: Cone-shaped area where the axon joins the cell body;
contains the trigger zone for action potentials.
o Axoplasm/Axolemma: The cytoplasm and plasma membrane of the axon.
o Telodendria: Terminal branches of the axon ending in synaptic knobs
(bulbs).

5. Myelination and Matter

Myelin is a whitish, fatty (lipoprotein) covering that protects and electrically
insulates axons, increasing the speed of nerve impulse transmission.
 PNS Myelination: Schwann cells wrap around an axon. The nucleus and
cytoplasm are pushed to the periphery, forming the neurilemma.
 CNS Myelination: One oligodendrocyte can myelinate portions of several axons.
No neurilemma is formed, which contributes to the lack of regeneration in the
CNS.
 Neurofibril Nodes (Nodes of Ranvier): Gaps in the myelin sheath where voltage-
gated channels are concentrated.
5.1 Gray and White Matter
 White Matter: Dense collections of myelinated axons.
 Gray Matter: Contains neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons.
In the spinal cord, gray matter forms an "H-shaped" core.
6. Neurophysiology: Membrane Potentials
Communication by neurons depends on two basic features of their plasma
membranes: resting membrane potential and specific ion channels.
6.1 Ion Channels
 Leak Channels: Always open (e.g., K +¿ ¿ leak channels).
 Chemically (Ligand) Gated Channels: Open in response to a neurotransmitter
binding (common on dendrites/cell bodies).
 Voltage-Gated Channels: Open in response to changes in membrane potential
(common on axons).
6.2 Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)
The baseline charge across the membrane is typically -70 mV. It is maintained by:
1. Ion concentration gradients: High N a+¿ ¿ and C l −¿ ¿ outside; high K +¿ ,¿
phosphates, and proteins inside.
2. Differential permeability: The membrane is ~100x more permeable to K +¿ ¿ than
+¿ ¿
Na .

3. Na/K Pump: Actively pumps 3 N a+¿ ¿ out and 2 K +¿ ¿ in, maintaining the negative
interior.

7. Signal Transmission: GPs vs. APs

Neurons use two types of electrical signals to communicate.
Feature Graded Potentials (GP) Action Potentials (AP)

Origin Dendrites and cell body Trigger zone of axon hillock

Channels Ligand or mechanically gated Voltage-gated

Conduction Localized (decremental) Conducted down entire axon

Amplitude Varies with stimulus strength "All-or-none" (always same size)

Summation Can occur (Spatial/Temporal) None (due to refractory period)

7.1 Phases of an Action Potential
1. Resting State: All voltage-gated channels closed (-70 mV).
 2. Depolarization: Stimulus reaches threshold (-55 mV). Voltage-gated N a+¿ ¿
channels open; N a+¿ ¿ rushes in, making the inside positive (+30 mV).
3. Repolarization: N a+¿ ¿ channels inactivate; voltage-gated K +¿ ¿ channels open. K +¿ ¿
rushes out, restoring negative charge.
4. Hyperpolarization: K +¿ ¿ channels stay open longer than needed, dropping
potential below -70 mV before returning to rest via the Na/K pump.

8. Synaptic Transmission
The synapse is the junction between two neurons or a neuron and an effector.
1. Action Potential reaches the synaptic knob.
2. Voltage-gated C a2+¿ ¿ channels open; C a2+¿ ¿ enters the knob.
3. C a2+¿ ¿ triggers exocytosis of synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters (NT).
4. NT diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the postsynaptic
cell.
5. Postsynaptic Potentials are generated:
o EPSP (Excitatory): Opens N a+¿ ¿ channels; depolarizes toward threshold.
o IPSP (Inhibitory): Opens K +¿ ¿ or C l −¿ ¿ channels; hyperpolarizes away
from threshold.

9. Clinical Applications and Repair

 Multiple Sclerosis (MS): An autoimmune disorder where the patient's T-cells
destroy myelin sheaths in the CNS, causing muscle weakness and vision loss.
 Regeneration: CNS has little to no repair. PNS can repair if the soma (cell body)
is intact and Schwann cells are active.
o Wallerian Degeneration: The distal portion of a severed axon
disintegrates.
o Regeneration Tube: Formed by the neurilemma and endoneurium to guide
the growing axon back to its effector.