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Module - 1 8 Hours

Dual nature of radiation de Broglie hypothesis

Young’s double slit experiment Wavefunction

Blackbody radiation
Stern-Gerlach experiment.
Planck’s hypothesis
• Till 19th Century….All physical phenomena were explained using….

1. Newton’s classical mechanics: Dynamics of the material bodies

2. Maxwell’s Electromagnetic theory: Propagation of electromagnetic waves
and their interaction with matter
3. Classical Thermodynamics: State of the system under thermal
equilibrium

• At 20th Century… Classical mechanics failed to explain some physical

phenomenon at relativistic and microscopic domains
And that gave birth to the Quantum Mechanics! 3
 General Introduction

 Quantum mechanics (QM) is a physical science dealing with the behavior of matter and energy on the
scale of atoms and subatomic particles / waves

 Quantum mechanics (QM) gives accurate prediction of the physical behavior of systems, including systems
where Newtonian mechanics fails

 Although foundations of QM started in early 1800s, its real beginnings date from the work of Max Planck in
1900 and Planks hypothesis serve as one of the fundamental equations in QM.

 Quantum mechanics plays important role in various engineering fields such as electrical engineering,
material engineering, electronics engineering, transistor and semiconductor designing, nanomaterials,
photonics, spintronics, quantum computing etc.

 Plank’s theory of thermal radiation, Einstein explanation of photoelectric effect, Compton effect, emission
and absorption of radiation by substance, black body radiation proves that electromagnetic radiation
consist of discrete invisible packet of energy (h𝜈) is known as photon hence proves particle nature of
radiation.

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On other hand, macroscopic optical phenomenon like interference, diffraction and polarization proved wave
nature of electromagnetic radiation

From the second conclusion, we can say that EM radiation has dual nature. In certain situation proves wave
nature and in other prove particle nature

These wave and particle are only modes of energy transmission from one place to other

A particle means an object having definite position in space and they are identifiable by their properties like
mass, momentum, K.E., spin and electric charge.

A wave means periodically repeated pattern in space which specified by wavelength, frequency, amplitude of
disturbance, intensity

These two properties wave & particle of radiation can never be observed simultaneously.

This new and overwhelming/ cover completely ability of electromagnetic radiation itself proves wave and
particle nature and is now known as wave-particle dualism.

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We know all object in our environment are composed of matter.

Matter consists of a large number of Particles of atomic dimensions.

The material particle in motion specified by mass (m), velocity (V), momentum
(P=mv) and energy(E).

Different phenomenon like photoelectric effect, black body radiation etc, have
proved that Electromagnetic radiation has particle nature.

Optical phenomenon like interference and diffraction have proved that

Electromagnetic radiation has wave nature.

We call this twofold nature the particle-wave duality, meaning that EM radiation
has both particle and wave properties.

The EM radiation we once thought to be a pure wave has particle properties,

similarly, matter has both particle and wave properties.

De-Broglie proposed that like radiation, matter should also exhibit wave nature.
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• Wave behaviour of light
• Interference
• Diffraction
• Polarization

• Particle behaviour of light

• Black body radiation
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect

1. A particle occupies a definite position in space and it must be very small

2. A wave spreads out and occupies relatively large region in space and can not be attributed to a
particular location in space

Contradictory to each other!

• Light behaves as an advancing wave in some phenomenon and it behaves as flux of particles in
some other phenomenon Light exhibits wave-particle duality! 7
 !
ENERGY

𝟐
Compressed Free Form

Matter Wave

 Photon
 Duality / Symmetry
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 Wave-Particle Duality of Radiation and Matter

On a classical scale (macroscopic) particle with On a quantum mechanical scale (microscopic)

mass behave as particle and not has waves, particle Particles with and without mass have wave properties
without mass act as wave not as particles. Ex. Both electron and photons have wavelengths but
Also behave as particles

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• Intensity Problem: According to wave theory, intensity of
radiation is given by
𝟐

Where E is the amplitude of electromagnetic wave

• Classical wave theory failed to explain the black body
spectrum.

• Frequency Problem: According to wave theory, photoelectric

effect should take place for all frequencies provided the
intensity of light is sufficient to supply necessary energy to
the electron for its emission.
• Classical wave theory cannot explain the first 3 observations
of photoelectric effect
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• Stability of atom and atomic spectroscopy
• Black body radiation
• The photoelectric effect

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• In 1905, Albert Einstein coined the word “Photon” (a energy
quanta)
• The energy of a photon is determined by its frequency and given
as

• Light is a stream of photons travelling with a velocity of light “c”

• The rest mass of photons is zero ( 𝟎

• Relativistic mass:
• Linear momentum associated with a photon is expressed as
𝐸 ℎ𝑣 ℎ
𝑃= = =
𝑐 𝑐 𝜆
• Angular momentum or spin of a photon is 1
• Photons are electrically neutral and can not be influenced by
electric and magnetic fields 12
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 Young’s Double Slit Experiment

If we pass light through smaller openings, often called slits, we can use Huygens’s principle to
see that light bends as sound does. The bending of a wave around the edges of an opening or
an obstacle is called diffraction
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The amplitudes of waves add. (a) Pure constructive
interference is obtained when identical waves are in
phase. (b) Pure destructive interference occurs when
identical waves are exactly out of phase, or shifted by half
a wavelength.

Young first passed light from a single source (the Sun) through
a single slit to make the light somewhat coherent. By coherent,
we mean waves are in phase or have a definite phase
relationship. Incoherent means the waves have random phase
relationships.

Why did Young then pass the light through a double slit?

The answer to this question is that two slits provide two

coherent light sources that then interfere constructively or
destructively. Young used sunlight, where each wavelength
forms its own pattern, making the effect more difficult to see
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When light passes through narrow slits, it is diffracted into semicircular waves, as shown in Figure
27.12(a). Pure constructive interference occurs where the waves are crest to crest or trough to trough.
Pure destructive interference occurs where they are crest to trough. The light must fall on a screen and
be scattered into our eyes for us to see the pattern. An analogous pattern for water waves is shown in
Figure 27.12(b). Note that regions of constructive and destructive interference move out from the slits at well-
defined angles to the original beam
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 Waves follow different paths from the slits to a common
point on a screen. (a) Destructive interference occurs
here, because one path is a half wavelength longer than the
other. The waves start in phase but arrive out of phase. (b)
Constructive interference occurs here because one path is a
whole wavelength longer than the other. The waves start out
and arrive in phase.

To obtain constructive interference for a double slit

Fringe Position

Similarly, to obtain destructive interference for a double slit, the path

length difference must be a half-integral multiple of the wavelength

Fringe Width
Figure shows how to determine the path length difference for waves
traveling from two slits to a common point on a screen Distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes 19
Finding a Wavelength from an Interference Pattern

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Double Slit Experiment

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 Double slit summary

Wave particle duality : electron just like photon dual nature

Complementarity principle: The reality of the quantum system is not particle or wave it is both

Super Position and Collapse of wave function: In quantum mechanics the particle or system exist in multiple
States before measurement. When we measure we end up with collapse of wave function

The observers (Measurement): If we try to observe the system it get disturb

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 Quantum nature of radiation
1st evidence from spectrum emitted by a black-body
What is a black body ?
What is a white body?

An object that absorbs all incident radiation, i.e. no reflection - black body

An object that reflects all incident radiation, i.e. no absorption – white body.

A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of the radiation that
hits it. Therefore it reflects no radiation and appears perfectly black.
 A black-body?
(An object that absorbs all incident radiation, i.e. no reflection)
A small hole cut into a cavity is the most popular
and realistic example.
None of the incident radiation escapes

What happens to this radiation?

•The radiation is absorbed in the walls of the cavity
•This causes a heating of the cavity walls
•Atoms in the walls of the cavity will vibrate at frequencies characteristic of
the temperature of the walls
•These atoms then re-radiate the energy at this new characteristic frequency
 A black-body reaches thermal equilibrium when the incident
radiation power is balanced by the power re-radiated, i.e. if you expose
a black-body to radiation, its temperature rises until the incident and
radiated powers balance.

The maximum wavelength emitted by a black body radiator is

infinite. It also emits a definite amount of energy at each wavelength
for a particular temperature, called black body radiation curves,. All
objects emit radiation above absolute zero.

• The emission from a black-body depends only on its temperature.

• Objects at 300 K radiate in the infrared.

•Objects at 600 - 700 K start to glow.
•At high T, objects may become white hot
Black-body spectrum
This graph shows how the black
body radiation curves change at
various temperatures.
All these have their peak
wavelengths in the infra-red part
of the spectrum as they are at a
relatively lower temperature

A black-body at room temperature appears

black, as most of the energy it radiates is
infra-red and cannot be perceived by the
human eye.

At higher temperatures, black bodies glow

with increasing intensity and colors that
range from dull red to blindingly brilliant
blue-white as the temperature increases.

Fig : Black body radiation curves showing peak wavelengths at various temperatures
As the temperature increases, the
peak wavelength (not peak
intensity) emitted by the black body
decreases.
ie. as the temperature increases
from 1250 to 2000K, the peak
wavelength decreases from
2.5um(2500nm) to 1.5um (1500 nm)
LAVA flow

One can measure the

temperature of the lava
using the colour.
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 19th century a major problem for physicists : To predict the intensity of
radiation emitted by a black body at a specific wavelength.

Wien’s theory : Predicted the overall form of the curve by treating the
radiation as gas molecules.

Draw back: However, at long wavelengths his theory disagreed with

experimental data.

Rayleigh and Jeans : Later given a formula by considering the radiation

within the black body cavity to be made up of a series of standing waves.

They thought that electromagnetic radiation was emitted by oscillating atoms

in the walls of the black body and this radiation set up a standing wave
between the walls. Their formula stated: as given ……………

Wien, Rayleigh-Jeans and Planck distributions

8 k BT e   / T 8 hc
uRJ     ; uW     ; uP    
 4 5  5  e hc /  kBT  1
Draw backs : For large wavelengths it fitted the experimental data but it had
major problems at shorter wavelengths.
As the wavelength tended to zero, the curve would tend to infinity.
.
Ultraviolet catastrophe
The formulae failed to explain and account for energy outputs at short
wavelengths (the ultraviolet wavelengths) known as the ultraviolet
catastrophe.
.
 Comparison between Classical and Quantum
viewpoint

Cavity Modes

A mode for an electromagnetic wave in a cavity must satisfy the condition of

zero electric field at the wall. If the mode is of shorter wavelength, there are
more ways you can fit it into the cavity to meet that condition. Careful analysis
by Rayleigh and Jeans showed that the number of modes was proportional to
the frequency squared.
Max Planck

The law was the first to accurately describe black body radiation, and resolved
the ultraviolet catastrope. It is a breakthrough in modern physics and
quantum theory.

A major breakthrough was made by Max Planck who made a formula that
agreed with experimental data.
In 1900, Max Planck studied black body radiation from the
standpoint of thermodynamics.

He proposed that the energy of each electromagnetic

oscillator is limited to discrete values and cannot be varied
arbitrarily, contrary to the assumptions of classical physics.

This limitation of energies to discrete values is called the

quantization of energy.

Planck corrected the problem by assuming that only

specific energies hν could be involved. These permitted
energies of an electromagnetic oscillator are integer
multiples of hν

E = nhν ; n = 0, 1, 2, ……….
Before Planck it was assumed that these could have any value of energy,

but

Planck decided that the energy must go up in discrete amounts (quantised)

because the frequencies of the oscillating electrons could only take certain
values.

As energy is proportional to frequency (E = hf) , where h is the Planck

constant 6.626 x 10-34 Js) if frequency can only take discrete values,
this means that energy is also quantised.

The electrons have a fundamental frequency (like standing waves on a

string) and the frequency can only go up in whole multiples of this
frequency, called the quantum number. This assumption led Planck to
correctly derive his formula.
Application for Black Body
Limitations of Classical theory (failures)

1. Black body radiation

2. Origin of discrete spectra of atoms (gases)
3. Variation of specific heat of metals and gases
4. Stability of atoms
5. Failed to explain photoelectric effect, Compton effect,
Zeeman effect, Raman effect, etc….
Quantization is the procedure of constraining something from a
continuous set of values (such as the real numbers) to a relatively small
discrete set (such as the integers).

In Physics, quantization is the process of transition from a classical

understanding of physical phenomena to a newer understanding known
as “ quantum mechanics".
 Planck’s Radiation Formula
In 1900 Planck explained the experimentally observed distribution of energy in the
spectrum of black body and suggested that the correct results can be obtained if the
energy of oscillating electrons is taken as discrete rather than continuous.
He derived the radiation law by using the following assumptions:
1. A chamber containing blackbody radiations also contains simple harmonic oscillators
of molecular dimensions which can vibrate with all possible frequencies.
2. The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is the same as the frequency of
vibration.
3. An oscillator cannot emit energy in a continuous manner, it can emit energy in the
multiples of a small unit called quantum (photon). If an oscillator is vibrating with a
frequency ‘ν’, it can radiate in quantas of magnitude hν; the oscillator can have
discrete energies values En given by
En= nhν ; where n – an integer; h – Plancks constant (6.625 x 10-34 Joule- sec)
4. The oscillators can emit or absorb radiation energy in packet of hν. (revolutionary
assumption)
This implies that the exchange energy between radiation and matter cannot take
place continuously but are limited to discrete set of values 0, hν, 2hν, 3hν, ……….nhν.
Plancks radiation formula in terms of frequency

Plancks radiation formula in terms of wavelength

Find the energy density of black body radiation at T = 6000 K in
the range from 450 to 460 nm, assuming that this range is so
narrow that the energy density function ρT (f) does not vary
much over it. (Use Planck’s radiation law.)
• In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that matter has dual nature, just like radiation i.e.
Wave Nature
Radiation Matter
Particle Nature

Nature Loves Symmetry…!

de Broglie Hypothesis:
• Any moving particle is associated with a wave. The waves associated with particles are
known as de Broglie waves or matter waves
• The wavelength of matter waves associated with a particle moving with velocity is
inversely proportional to magnitude of momentum of the particle

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• The de Broglie equation is given as

• If velocity of particle is zero, i.e

• Matter waves are detectable for only for moving particles

• Smaller the mass of a particle Longer the wavelength of matter waves associated with it
• Wave behaviour of micro-particles is significant whereas waves associated with macro-bodies
can never be detected

• Smaller the velocity of the micro-particle Longer the wavelength of the matter wave
associated with it

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Wavelength associated with an accelerated charged particle
The K.E. of an accelerated charged particle is given as
1
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑒𝑉
2

2𝑒𝑉
∴ 𝑣=
𝑚
Electron wavelength is given by
ℎ 2𝑒𝑉
𝜆= = ℎ/𝑚
𝑚𝑣 𝑚

𝒉
∴ 𝝀=
𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽
De Broglie wavelength in terms of K.E.
1 𝑚 𝑣 𝑃
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝑣 = =
2 2𝑚 2𝑚

𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 2𝑚 (𝐾. 𝐸. )

𝒉
∴𝝀=
𝟐𝒎 (𝑲. 𝑬. ) 49
• Case-1: For example, if we consider a cricket ball of 500 gm moving with a velocity of 50 km/hr,
then it’s wavelength comes to

𝟐𝟒

• Case-2: Consider an electron is accelerated by a potential of 100 V. The de Broglie wavelength of

the electron is given by

The size of the electron is about which is smaller than the wavelength of 1.33Å
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• Bohr’s Postulate: Angular momentum L of the electron revolving in a stationary orbit is quantized

• The associated matter waves propagate along the circumference of the circular loop in form of
standing waves
• The condition for standing wave is that the circumference of the loop should be an integral number
of whole wavelength, i.e.
−❶
And r is the radius of the circular loop

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• The de Broglie wavelength of electron is given as

Putting value of λ in equation (1)

Here, is an angular momentum of electron

Thus, de Broglie demonstrated that the quantization of angular momentum is a direct consequence of
wave nature of electron

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• Matter waves are produced by the motion of the particles and are independent of the
charge. Therefore, they are neither electromagnetic nor acoustic waves but are new kind
of waves
• They can travel through vacuum and do not require any material medium for their
propagation
• The smaller the velocity of the particle, the longer is the wavelength of the matter waves
associated with it
• The lighter the particle, the longer is the wavelength of the matter wave associated with
it
• The velocity of matter wave is not a constant unlike light waves
• Matter waves exhibit diffraction phenomenon as any other waves
• It is a wave of probability indicating the likelihood of locating the particle
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Ex.1 An electron beam is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 200 V
(i) Calculate the associated wavelength
(ii) This beam is passed through a diffraction grating of 3 Å. At what angle of deviation from
the incident direction will be the first maximum observed?

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Ex.1 An electron beam is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 200 V
(i) Calculate the associated wavelength
(ii) This beam is passed through a diffraction grating of 3 Å. At what angle of deviation from
the incident direction will be the first maximum observed?

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Ex.2. An enclosure filled with helium is heated to 400 K. A beam of He-atoms emerges out
of the enclosure. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength corresponding to He atoms. Mass of
He atom is 6.7 x 10-27 kg.

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Ex.2. An enclosure filled with helium is heated to 400 K. A beam of He-atoms emerges out
of the enclosure. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength corresponding to He atoms. Mass of
He atom is 6.7 x 10-27 kg.

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A rifle bullet of mass 20g is moving with a velocity of 300m/s.
Calculate the de-Broglie wave length associated with it.
Find the kinetic energy of the neutron whose
wavelength is 10-4m
Find the de Broglie wavelength of
(i) an electron accelerated through a potential difference of 182
volts, and
(ii) a 1 kg object moving with a speed 1 m/s.
Comparing the results explain why the wave nature of matter is not
more apparent in daily observations.
Phase Velocity: A rate at which phase of a wave propagate in space.
• For a harmonic wave of single wavelength and single frequency, the
velocity of propagation is given as
−❶
𝒑

Now, and

𝝎
𝒑 is a phase velocity of de-Broglie wave
𝒌

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• Phase velocity represents the velocity of propagation of wave front
We know
𝐸 ℎ 𝐸
∴ 𝜐 = 𝜈𝜆 = × =
ℎ 𝑃 𝑃

• If a particle is moving with non-relativistic velocity, then

𝐸 𝑚𝑐 𝑐 𝒄𝟐
𝜐 = = = ⇒ 𝝊𝒑 =
𝑃 𝑚𝑣 𝑣 𝒗

• As the phase velocity of the de-Broglie wave associated with atomic particle is always
greater than c
• According to the theory of relativity, it is not possible that the velocity of the particle wave
greater than or equal to the velocity of light
• Hence, a harmonic wave of wavelength λ can not represent a moving atomic particle
• Thus, de-Broglie waves can not be harmonic waves!
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• Schrodinger postulated that a wave packet represent a particle
• A wave packet consists of a group of harmonic waves. Each wave having slightly different
wavelength
• The superposition of a very large number of harmonic waves produce a single wave
packet
• The waves interfere constructively over only a small region of space and cancel each
other everywhere
• The velocity with which the wave packet propagates is called Group velocity, 𝒈

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• The amplitude of the wave packet varies with 𝑥 and 𝑡. Such a variation
of amplitude is called as modulation of the wave
• Consider two waves of equal amplitude and slightly different angular
velocities ω1 and ω2
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑘 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑘 𝑥
The superposition of these two waves is

𝑦 + 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑘 𝑥

(𝜔1 + 𝜔2 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 (𝜔1 − 𝜔2 𝑘1 − 𝑘2
𝑦 + 𝑦 = 2𝐴 sin 𝑡 − 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 − 𝑥
2 2 2 2

∆𝜔𝑡 ∆𝑘𝑥
𝑦 + 𝑦 = 2𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −
2 2
Where
( ) ( )
𝜔= 𝑘= ∆𝜔 = 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 and ∆𝑘 = 𝑘1 − 𝑘2
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The resultant wave have two parts
∆𝜔𝑡 ∆𝑘𝑥
𝑦 + 𝑦 = 2𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −
2 2

i) A wave of angular frequency and propagation constant k, moving with velocity

𝜔
𝜐 = = 𝜈𝜆
𝑘

ii) A second wave of angular frequency and propagation constant , moving with
velocity
Δ𝜔
𝜐 =
Δ𝑘
When Δ𝜔 and Δ𝑘 is very small,
𝑑𝜔
𝜐 =
𝑑𝑘

2𝜋𝑑𝜈 𝑑𝜈
𝑜𝑟 𝜐 = =𝜆
2𝜋𝑑(1/𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 68
The phase velocity is given as
𝜔
𝜐 =
𝑘
Or 𝜔 = 𝑘𝝊𝒑
The group velocity is given as
𝑑𝜔 𝑑 𝑑𝜐
𝜐 = = 𝑘𝜐 = 𝜐 +𝑘
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘

We know, 𝑘 = ∴ 𝑑𝑘 = − 𝑑𝜆

𝑘 𝜆
=−
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝜆

𝒅𝝊𝒑
𝝊𝒈 = 𝝊𝒑 − 𝝀
𝒅𝝀

In non-dispersive medium, 𝜐 = 𝜐
In dispersive medium, waves of different wavelengths travel in a medium with different velocities. Therefore, the
group velocity is in general less than the phase velocity. 69
The velocity of a particle equals the group velocity of the associated matter waves
Group velocity of a wave packet is
𝒅𝝎
𝝊𝒈 =
𝒅𝒌

𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑃
𝜐 =
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑘
We know,
𝑑𝜔 1
𝐸 = ℏ𝜔 ⇒ =
𝑑𝐸 ℏ
𝑑𝑃
𝑃 = ℏ𝑘 ⇒ = ℏ
𝑑𝑘

1 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝜐 = ℏ =
ℏ 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
For a particle,
𝑃 𝑃𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝐸 𝑃
𝐸= ⇒ 𝑑𝐸 = ⇒ =
2𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑃 𝑚

𝒅𝑬 𝑷
𝝊𝒈 = = = 𝝊
𝒅𝑷 𝒎

 Thus, the de-Broglie wave group associated with an atomic particle travels with the same velocity as that of the
particle itself 70
i) Possible energy state of a microparticle
trapped in a box

ii) Neutron diffraction

iii) Transmission Electron Microscopy

(TEM)

iv) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

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If the position of the electron is measured within an
accuracy of + 0.002 nm, calculate the uncertainty in
the momentum of the electron. Suppose the
momentum of the electron h / 4π × 0.05 nm . Is there
any problem in defining this value?

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The uncertainty in momentum is larger than the momentum itself

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The lifetime of an excited state of an atom is 3 × 10-3s.
What is the minimum uncertainty in its energy in eV?

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• A propagating disturbance in a medium is wave

 Light waves
 Sound waves Certain quantity varies with position and time
 Water waves

• What varies with de-Broglie wave ?

• Wave function describes the wave as a function of position and time

• is not an observable quantity has no direct physical significance

• In general, is a complex-valued function, gives the probable value of the
measurement
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A probability interpretation is given by Max Born in 1926

“The square of the magnitude of the wave function 𝟐

evaluated in particular region
represents the probability of finding the particle in that region”
OR
“Probability (P) of finding the particle in an infinitesimal volume is
proportional to at time t”

i.e. 𝟐

Where,
𝟐 is probability density
is probability amplitude

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Since the particle is certainly in space, the probability P = 1

To make probability a real quantity, is to be multiplied by its complex conjugate ∗

𝟐 gives the probability of finding the atomic particle in a particular region

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If a particle is somewhere in the space, the sum of the probabilities over all values of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 must be unity
If 𝜓 is multiplied by a constant C such that

𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐶𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

𝜓 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 1

Where, 𝝍𝑵(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕) is a normalized wave function and C is the normalized constant

This is called normalization condition.
1
𝐶 =
∫ 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

Here, 𝜓 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 is called the probability density

Whenever wave function is normalized, 𝜓 𝑑𝑉 equals the probability that a particle will found in an element
volume dV

Thus, Probability 𝑷 = 𝝍(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) 𝟐 𝒅𝑽

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An acceptable wave function must be normalized and fulfil the following
requirements

(i) function must be finite:

(ii) function must be single valued:

(iii) function must be continuous:

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 Physical significance of Ψ

1. It relates the particle and wave nature of matter statistically.

2. It is a complex quantity and hence we cannot measure it. It shall be expressed of
the form  ( x, y , z , t )  a  ib (1)
where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are real functions of variables (x,y,z,t)
The complex conjugate of Ψ is denoted by Ψ* by changing ‘i” to ‘-i’
  ( x, y, z, t )  a  ib (2)
multiplying (1) and (2)
 ( x, y , z , t )   ( x, y , z , t )  a 2  b 2 (3)

The product (LHS)    is denoted by P

2
Ie. P =  ( x, y, z , t )  ( x, y, z , t )   ( x, y, z , t )
2
 ( x, y , z , t )  a 2  b 2 (4)

3. Its square is a measure of the probability of finding the particle at a particular

position . It cannot predict the exact location of the particle
2
 ( x, y , z , t ) is called probability density
4. For the motion of a particle, the probability of finding the particle in a
volume element ‘dv’ is
Pdv   ( x, y, z, t )   ( x, y, z , t )dv
2
  ( x, y , z , t ) dv

For the motion of the particle in one dimension, Pdx   ( x, t )   ( x, t ) 2 dx

probability per unit

 distance
Therefore , the total probability is 
2
Px   ( x, t ) dx


For 3-dimensional space

2
P   ( x, y, z, t ) dv


5. The normalising condition for the wave function for the motion of
a particle in 3-dimension is 
(7)
  ( x, y, z, t ) dv  1
2



Where Ψ is the function of space coordinates (x,y,z)

6. If the wave function does not satisfy the normalization condition eqn (7), then
it must be multiplied by a constant factor called normalization factor.
For eg.
 dx  N
2
( N 1 )

1
The normalization factor will be and the normalized wave function
will be 1  N
N

7. The wave function Ψ must approach zero as ‘x’ tends to ±α.

8. The wave function satisfying the following condition is said to be an

orthogonal wave function


  ( x)dx  0
i j


The orthogonality condition guarantee the non-interference of the

wave function representing different states.
9. Degeneracy

If Ψi and Ψj corresponds to the same energy “E” then this is called as degenerate
state.
10. Orthonormal set: The normalization and orthoganility conditions may be
combined as follows

i j
 i  j dv  1


0 i j (10)

Wave function of the form eqn (10) is said to be orthogonal wave function.

11. Ψ must be finite for all values of x,y,z.

12. Ψ must be well behaved i.e single valued and continuous every where.
13. Ψ must be continious in all regions except in those region where the
potential energy V(x,y,z) = α
 Acceptable wave functions

Single-valued:
At any given point in space, the wave function must have •Acceptable:
ψ(x) = A e^(-x²/2) (a Gaussian function) is acceptable because it is
only one value continuous, finite, square-integrable, and satisfies boundary conditions for
many systems.
Continuity:
Unacceptable
The wave function must be continuous, meaning it doesn't ψ(x) = 1/x is not acceptable because it is not finite at x=0. ψ(x) =
have any abrupt jumps or breaks tan(x) is also unacceptable due to discontinuities.

Finite:
The wave function must be finite everywhere. It cannot be
infinite at any point in space

•Square-integrable:
The integral of the absolute square of the wave function over all space must be finite. This condition ensures that the probability of finding the
particle somewhere in space is 1.

•Boundary Conditions:
The wave function must be consistent with the specific constraints of the quantum mechanical system. For example, in a
confined region, the wave function might be required to vanish at the boundaries.

•Differentiable:
In many cases, the first derivative of the wave function (dψ/dx) is also required to be continuous, especially when the potential energy is finite.
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The existence of spin magnetic moment for the electron was first demonstrated in 1921,
In a classical experiment performed by otto stern and walter gerlach

The electron spin was unknown at that time and the stern – gerlach experiment originally
convinced to demonstrated space quantization associated with orbiting electrons
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•Angular momentum is not just
quantized in magnitude,
•but also in direction.

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