UNIT 1: CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

Introduc�on

• Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen are the four common elements in the living body.
Other than that Sulphur, Phosphorous, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron and
Chlorine are essen�al for survival of organisms.

Oxygen - 65 % Carbon - 18% Hydrogen - 10% Nitrogen - 3 % Others - 4%

Organic Compounds (Contain Carbon)

Also known as Bio Molecules

Chemical componds that build up Inorganic Compounds (Do not contain

living matter. Carbon)

Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide,

Carbonates and Bicarbonates are inorganic
compounds that contain Carbon

• Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and Nucleic acids are the main types of biomolecules. Vitamins
are also important organic compounds. In addi�on to these, inorganic substances like water,
minerals and gases are essen�al for suppor�ng life.

Carbohydrates

• Most Abundant Organic Compound.

• Produced during the photosynthesis of green plants.
• Elemental composi�on: Carbon(C), Hydrogen(H), Oxygen(O)

Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides
o Structural unit (smallest unit) o Two monosaccharides join o Polymerisa�on of large
of carbohydrate. to form a Disaccharide. number of
o Known as Simple Sugars Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide monosaccharides.
⇔ Disaccharide + Water o Structural Unit  Glucose

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 Different Types Different Types Different Types
 Glucose  Maltose  Cellulose
Present in Ripen fruits, Bee Glucose + Glucose ⇔ Maltose + H20 Helps to prevent cons�pa�on.
honey. Present in Germina�ng Seeds Present in cell wall of plant cells
and in fibres.
 Fructose  Sucrose
Known as Fruit Sugar. This is the Glucose + Fructose ⇔ Sucrose + H20  Starch
sweetest Sugar. Present in Ripen Present in white and brown Stored in plants. Present in
Fruits, Behoney, Pumpkin sugar, sugar cane and beet. Grains, Yams, Jak

 Galactose  Lactose  Glycogen

Doesn’t have a sweet taste. Glucose + Galactose ⇔ Lactose + H20 Stored in Animal Body. Present in
Present in Diary Products The only sugar that is absent in Animal Liver and muscles.
plants. Present in Diary Products.

Proteins

• Essen�al cons�tuent in all living cells.

• Elemental Composi�on – Carbon(C), Hydrogen(H), Oxygen(O), and Nitrogen(N) Some�mes
Sulphur(S)
• 17% of the human body is composed of proteins.
• Structural Unit – Amino Acids
Refer this section for extra knowledge
Proteins present in Muscles Myosin, Actin
Proteins present in Bones Ossein
Proteins present in Red Blood Cells Haemoglobin
Proteins present in hairs Keratin
Proteins present in Leguminous food Legumin
Proteins present in wheat Gluten
Proteins present in egg white Albumin

Enzymes
Organic Catalysts that are produced within the organism to increase the rate of biochemical
reac�ons.
Ex: Ac�vity of Amylase on Starch (Starch is converted to Maltose by Amylase enzyme)
Lipids
Group of Fats and Oils
Solid at Room Temperature  Fats
Liquid at Room Temperature  Oils

𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 + 𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮 → 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 + 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

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Nucleic Acids
• Most Important out of main bio molecules in gene�cal aspect
• Elemental Composi�on – Carbon(C), Hydrogen(H), Oxygen(O), Nitrogen(N) and Phosphorous(P)
• There are two types of Nucleic Acids
o DNA – Deoxy Ribo Nucleic Acids
 Transfers gene�c characters from genera�on to genera�on.
o RNA – Ribo Nucleic Acids
 Helps to perform the produc�on of proteins.

Tests to Remember
Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids
Starch Test Biurete Test Sudan III Test
- Brown colour iodine turns - Blue coloured reagent - Red fat globules can be
to Purplish blue when it turns to Dark Purple seen when Sudan III
reacts with starch. reagent is added.

Glucose Test (Benedict’s Test)

- When benedict’s solu�on
is added and immersed in
a water bath and heated.
Colour changes from
Blue  Green  Green yellow 
Orange  Brick red precipitate.

Sucrose Test
- Like Benedict’s test but
Sulphuric Acid should be
added.

Significance
Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids
- As an energy - As an energy source - As an energy - Storage of gene�c
source only (when there is source informa�on
- As a storage no carbohydrate and - To maintain body - Protein synthesis
compound lipid) temperature process
- As a cons�tuent in - To make structural - To protect - Controlling cellular
Nucleic Acids components internal body ac�vi�es in cell.
- As Enzymes organs
Water
• Highest propor�on of body mass of living organisms is composed of water.
• Two third (2/3rd) of body weight of most organisms is by water.
Specific Property Contribu�on towards maintenance of life
A good solvent Important in respira�on of aqua�c organisms
as Oxygen is soluble to water
A coolant (because it has a high specific heat capacity) Maintains body temperature

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 High cohesive and adhesive forces Cohesive  Transport water to upper part of
plant
Adhesive  H20 + H20 Atrac�on Force
Differen�al expansion in freezing Density of Ice is low, and it is formed on top of
liquid water to provide a living environment for
aqua�c organisms

Minerals
Macro elements  Required in higher amounts.
Trace elements  Required in small amounts.

Element Func�on Deficiency Symptom

Potassium - Ac�vity of Heart - Psychological disorders
- Transmission of Nerve impulses - Weaking of muscles
Sodium - Ac�vates Enzymes - Respiratory disorders
- Transmission of Nerve impulses - Cramps
Magnesium - Cons�tuent in bones and teeth - High heartbeat
- Help in metabolic ac�vi�es - Nerve irritability
Calcium - Growth of bones and teeth - Weakening of bones and
- Blood Clo�ng teeth
- Growth disorders
Phosphorous - Growth of bones and teeth - Weakening of bones
- Cons�tuent in Nucleic Acids
Iron - Synthesis of Haemoglobin - Anaemia
- Cons�tuent in Enzymes - Sleepiness
Iodine - Synthesis of Thyroxin Hormone - Affects development of
intelligence
- Limits body weight

Minerals in plants
Element Deficiency Symptom
Nitrogen Retarda�on of growth
Phosphorous Red and purple patches
Potassium Chlorosis in leaves
Iron Chlorosis in tender leaves
Calcium Dying of �ssues at �p of leaf
Zinc Extra thickness in leaves
Sulphur Chlorosis in veins

Vitamins
Water Soluble (BC) Water Insoluble (KADE - කෙඩ්)
Vitamin B  Causes Anaemia (Reduced RBC) Vitamin K  Delays Blood Clo�ng
and Beri Beri (Weakness of nerves) Vitamin A  Bito patches in eye, Night
Blindness
Vitamin C  Causes Scurvy (Bleeding of gums) Vitamin D  Rickets (Deforming of bones)
Vitamin E  Weakness in reproduc�ve system.

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UNIT 2: MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

Quantities

Vector Quantities Scalar Quantities

Have a magnitude and a direction Have a magnitude but no direction

Eg: Force, Displacement, Velocity Eg: Speed, Mass, Distance

Distance - How much ground an object has covered during its

mo�on.
Displacement – Shortest distance between two points

Formulas
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 =
𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗
𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 ∗ 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕
𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕
Graphs
Displacement vs Time Velocity vs Time
Gradient = Velocity Gradient = Accelera�on
Area under graph = Displacement

Gravita�onal Accelera�on

• Accelera�on caused by earths gravita�onal force.

• Average value of gravita�onal accelera�on at sea level is 9.8ms-2.
o Velocity of free-falling body increases by 9.8ms-1 every second.
o Velocity of an object moving upwards decreases by 9.8ms-1 every second
o When doing calcula�ons we consider gravita�onal accelera�on as 10ms-2

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UNIT 3: STRUCTURE OF A MATTER

• Those that occupy space and have a mass are called mater.

Discoveries Discovered by
Proton Ernest Rutherford
Electron J. J. Thompson
Neutron James Chadwick
Planetary model of atom Ernest Rutherford
Modern atomic model Neils Bohr

K–2
L–8
M – 18
N - 32

Periodic table Dimitri Mendeleff

Method of wri�ng an element

Atomic Number (Z) = No. of Protons = No. of Electrons

Mass Number(A) – Atomic Number(Z) = No. of Neutrons

• Electronic configura�on is the representa�on of how electrons are filled in the respec�ve energy
levels from the one nearest to nucleus of an atom and outwards.
Na – 2, 8, 1
• To Find a period, the No. of shells = No. of periods.
Example: Na - 2,8,1 - Three shells are there, so period no. is 3.
Calcium - 2,8,8,2 - Four shells are there, so period no. is 4.
• Group number is equal to the number of valence electrons.
Example: Na - 2,8,1  Group = 1
Calcium - 2,8,8,2  Group = 2

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Isotopes
The atoms with different mass numbers in the same element are known as isotopes of that
element. (Different proton numbers)
Ex: Hydrogen Pro�um, Deuterium, Tri�um

Paterns in Periodic Table

• First ioniza�on energy

The minimum energy supplied to an atom in gaseous state to remove an electron and form uni-
posi�ve gaseous ion.
Ex: Na(g)  Na+(g) + e
Highest  Group 8 (He)
Lowest  Group 1 (K)

• Electronega�vity
Ability if an atom to atract electrons towards itself when bonding.
Highest  Group 7 (F)
Lowest  Group 1 (K)

Metals Non - Metals

Sodium Magnesium Nitrogen Sulphur Carbon
- Highly - Reac�ve Metal - Diatomic gas Crystalline  Crystalline 
Reac�ve in Yellow britle Diamond, Graphite,
- Stored in atmosphere solid Fluorine
paraffin oil or - Present in Amorphous  Amorphous 
Kerosene oil. animal and White powder Charcoal, Coal
- plant protein
- Density less - Density higher - Colourless - Poor - Black in colour
than water than water - Odourless conductor of - Density is
- Conductor of - Conducts Heat - Lighter than electricity rela�vely low.
heat and and Electricity air - Insoluble in - Conducts
electricity water electricity
- Highly - Burns with a - Non- - Burns with a - Low reac�vity
reac�ve with bright white supporter of blue flame.
O2 flame giving combus�on

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 white - Gas of low - From the
magnesium reac�vity metal
oxide sulphide
- Produc�on of - Produc�on of - As a coolant - Produc�on
Indigo Dye Medicines - To fill vehicle of Vine
- Produc�on of - Prevents tyres - Produc�on
Street Lamps corrosion of Sulphuric
acid

Metalloids
Silicon Boron
Crystalline  Quartz, sand, emerald Crystalline  Black crystalline shop
Amorphous  Clay Amorphous  White powder
- Making Transistor and Diodes - In making skin seam.
- Making solar cells - Used in Welding metals.

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO3 Cl2O7
Strong Base Weak Base Amphoteric Very Weak Weak Acid Strong Acid Very Strong
Acid Acid

Wri�ng Formulae

Polyatomic Ions/Radicals
Ammonium – NH4
Nitrate – NO3
Hydroxide – OH-
Sulphate – SO42-
Carbonate – CO32-
Phosphate – PO4 3-

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UNIT 4: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

• Force is a push or a pull.

Newton’s First Law
Un�l an unbalanced force is applied on it, bodies at rest remain sta�onery and bodies in mo�on
con�nue to more at uniform veloci�es.
Amal placed a ball on the kitchen table. The ball stayed still until his cat accidentally nudged it. Once the ball
was in motion, it only stopped when it hit the edge of the table.

Newton’s Second Law

The accelera�on of a body is directly propor�onal to the unbalanced force ac�ng on it, while it is
inversely propor�onal to its mass.
𝑭𝑭 = 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
Bimal pushed a small toy car, and it rolled quickly across the floor. When he tried the same push on a heavier
truck toy, it moved much slower. He realized the heavier the object, the more force was needed to make it
move as fast.

Newton’s Third Law

For every ac�on, there is an equal and opposite reac�on.
Chamal jumped off a small boat into the lake. As he pushed himself forward into the water, the boat moved
backward. This showed that every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

Momentum
It is the measure of how difficult it is to stop the mo�on of a body. Depends on two factors mass
and velocity.
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 = 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 ∗ 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗
𝒑𝒑 = 𝒎𝒎 ∗ 𝒗𝒗
Unit: kgms-1

Mass and weight

𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 = 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 ∗ 𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
Mass is the amount of mater in an object and does not change, no mater where it is. However,
weight depends on gravity, so it changes depending on loca�on. For example, a person with a mass
of 60 kg on Earth will s�ll have a mass of 60 kg on the Moon, but their weight will be much less
because the Moon’s gravity is weaker. (1/6 of that on earth)

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UNIT 5: FRICTION

• The force which opposes the mo�on of the object

There are three types of fric�onal forces.

• Sta�c Fric�on – When there is no relative motion, even though, a force is applied.
• Limi�ng Fric�on – When it just begins to move.
• Dynamic Fric�on – When they are in relative motion.

• Nature of contact surface and Normal reac�on are the factors affec�ng fric�onal force.
• Methods to reduce fric�on.
o Polish the surface.
o Apple Lubricants
o Insert Ball Bearing
• Methods to increase fric�on.
o Making surface rough using sand or grooves.
Amal and Bimal tried to push a box. At first, it wouldn’t move (static friction). With more force, it just started
moving (limiting friction). Once sliding, it became easier (dynamic friction). To make it easier, Chamal
suggested polishing the floor or using oil (reduce friction). For grip, he said to make surfaces rough with sand
or grooves. (Increase friction)

UNIT 6: STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONS OF THE PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

• Cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.

• Schleiden, Schwann, Radolf Virchow introduced the cell theory. Below are its contents.
o The structural and func�onal unit of life is the cell.
o All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
o New cells are formed from pre-exis�ng cells.
• The small structures present within the cell to perform different func�ons are known as
organelles. The cell prepared by including all the organelles is known as the typical cell.

Typical Plant Cell Typical Animal cell

• Nucleus, Cytoplasm and Cell membrane are common organelles while chloroplast, vacuole and
cell wall are only present in plant cells.

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 Organelles Func�on
Cell wall (Cellulose) - Maintain the shape, support, and protect the cell
Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane) - Control the entry and exit of materials into and out of
the cell
Cytoplasm - Maintain the shape.
- Carry out different metabolic processes
Nucleus - Control life ac�vi�es of the cell
Mitochondria (Powerhouse) - Produce energy
Golgi Complex - Produc�on, packaging, and secre�on of secretory
substances
Ribosome - Protein Synthesis
Rough Endoplasmic Re�culum - Transporta�on of protein
Smooth Endoplasmic Re�culum - Produces Lipids and Steroids.
Vacuole - Maintenance of water Balance
- Provision of colour by pigments

• Cell growth is the irreversible increase in size and dry mass of a cell.
• Cell division is the process by which new cells are formed by the division of cellular materials.

Cell Division
Mitosis Meiosis

Occurs during growth, asexual reproduc�on & Occurs during gamete forma�on
cell replica�on
1 Cell Division 2 Cell Division
Takes place in haploid(n) and diploid(2n) cells Takes place only in diploid(2n) cells.
No varia�on Varia�on occurs
2 daughter cells are produced 4 daughter cells are produced
Like mother cell Different to mother cell

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UNIT 7: QUANTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

• Atomic mass unit is the mass of the unit rela�ve to which masses of other atoms are expressed.

𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔𝑪𝑪 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 1.99 ∗ 10−23 𝑔𝑔

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = = = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 ∗ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒈𝒈
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 12
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒂𝒂 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖

Avogadro Constant

• The Avogadro constant is the number of par�cles (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) in one
mole of a substance. Its value is approximately 6.022 × 10²³ par�cles per mole.
For example:
If you have 1 mole of water molecules, it means you have about 6.022 × 10²³ water molecules.
If you have 2 mole of water molecules, it means you have about 2 x 6.022 × 10²³ water molecules.

Molar Mass

• Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance, typically expressed in grams per mole
(g/mol).
How to Calculate Molar Mass:

> Find the relative atomic masses of all the elements in the compound.
> Multiply the atomic mass of each element by the number of atoms of that element in the formula.
> Add them up to get the molar mass.

For H₂O (water):

 Hydrogen (H): Atomic mass = 1, and there are 2 H atoms → 2×1=2 g mol-1
 Oxygen (O): Atomic mass = 16, and there is 1 O atom → 1x16=16 g mol-1
 Total molar mass = 2+16=18 g mol-1
This means 1 mole of water weighs 18 grams.

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝒎𝒎
𝒏𝒏 =
𝑴𝑴

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UNIT 8: CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISMS
Common characteris�cs of living organisms
1. Cellular Organiza�on
Cell  Tissue  Organ  Systems  Organism
2. Nutri�on
Chemoautotrophic
(Energy obtainned by
chemical reaction)

Autotrophic (Produce
thier own food) Photoautotrophic (Use
sunlight as the source
Nutrition Method of energy)
Heterotrophic (Don't Eg: Photosynthesis
produce thier own food)

3. Respira�on
 Oxida�on of Glucose to produce energy.

4. Irritability and Coordina�on

 Ability to respond to a s�mulus received from external or internal environment is Irritability.
 The communica�on between different organs to bring out a response is Coordina�on.
5. Excre�on
 Removal of waste products from the body that are produced during metabolism.
 Lungs  CO2, H2O(g) | Skin  Urea, Uric acid, Salt, H2O | Kidney (Main organ)  Urea, Uric acid, Salt, H2O
6. Movement
 Unicellular organisms use Cilia (Paramecium), Flagella (Euglena/Bacteria/Chlamydomonas) and
Pseudopodia (Amoeba)
 Mul�cellular organisms move a part or whole body by the help of muscles.
o Geotropism  Movement of roots towards the earth
o Phototropism  Movement of shoot apex towards the light.
7. Reproduc�on
 Produc�on of new genera�on by a unicellular or mul�cellular organism for the con�nua�on of
their species.
 Asexual  A single organism produces an iden�cal offspring.
 Sexual  Sperm + Ovum  Zygote
8. Growth and Development
 Irreversible increase in the size of the cell, increase in number of cells by cell division, Cell
differen�a�on are the three steps of growth and development.
 Auxanometer can be used to show the growth of a plant.

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Virus
 Showing characteris�cs of non-living except reproduc�on.
 Contain DNA or RNA as the gene�c material.
 Can be observed through an electron microscope.
 Becomes ac�ve only inside the host cells.
 Plant Diseases  Banana bunchy top disease and curly leaf of chilies
 Animal Diseases  Influenza, common cold, dengue and AIDS

UNIT 9: RESULTANT FORCE

• A single force indica�ng the combina�on of two or more forces.

• Always an object will move with the resultant force.
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∗ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

(a) F1 + F2 = 10 + 20 = 30N
(b) F2 – F1 = 40 – 20 = 20N (It moves in the direc�on of the large force)
(c) F2 – F1 = 25 – 25 = 0N (No Movement)

When the two forces are inclined, the resultant force.

will be totally in another direc�on between the two forces.

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UNIT 10: CHEMICAL BONDS

• A chemical bond is the force that holds atoms together in a molecule or compound.

Ionic Bonds/Electrovalent Bonds Covalent Bonds

• Atoms transfer electrons. • Atoms share electrons.

Lewis Dot and Cross Diagram

• All ionic compounds are organized in a 3D
la�ce known as ionic la�ce.
• Bonds form between
> Group 1 or 2 with Group 6 or 7
> Metal/Non-Metal with polyatomic ion Lewis Dot Diagram
> Polyatomic ion with polyatomic ion

Characteris�cs
- Composed of posi�vely and nega�vely
Lewis Structure
charged ions.
- Most of them have solid crystalline form at
room temperature.
- High boiling and mel�ng points.
- Conduct electricity in fused state and in
• Some form a covalent structure known as
aqueous medium.
atomic La�ce Ex: Diamond, Graphite
- Most of them are soluble in water
Characteris�cs
- Most of them are liquid and gas at room
temperature.
- Me�ng and Boiling points are low.
- Do not conduct electricity at any state.
- Some are soluble in water.

• Period 3 elements can have electrons less or more than octet and s�ll be stable.
Ex: AlCl3, PH5

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 Allotropic forms of Carbon
Diamond Graphite

- 1Carbon with 4Carbon - 1Carbon with 3Carbon

- Hardest Substance in - Weak Forces
nature - Behaves as a lubricant

• Polariza�on refers to the process where the distribu�on of electrical charge within a system (like
an atom, molecule, or bond) becomes uneven, crea�ng regions with par�al posi�ve (δ+) and
par�al nega�ve (δ−) charges.
• An intermolecular bond is a force of atrac�on between molecules.
• Special Proper�es in water due to intermolecular bond
o High boiling point
o High specific heat capacity (4200Jkg-1k-1)
o Having a higher density than ice

UNIT 11: TURNING EFFECT OF A FORCE

𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒂𝒂 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 = 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 ∗ 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
Unit: Nm

When an object is in equilibrium(rest), Clockwise moment = An�clockwise moment

• A couple of force refers to a pair of equal and opposite forces ac�ng on an object, separated by
a distance, that produces rota�on without transla�on. (Resultant Force is Zero)
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 = 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 ∗ 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
Unit: Nm
Applica�ons of couple of Forces
- Unscrewing a nail with screwdriver
- Opening a Tap
- Rota�ng the steering wheel

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UNIT 12: EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

Equilibrium of a body under

Two Co-Planar Forces Three Co-Planar Forces Three Unparallel Forces
Condi�ons Condi�ons Condi�ons
- 2 Forces must be equal in - 3 forces must be coplanar. - 3 forces must be coplanar.
magnitude. - One force must be - Lines of ac�on must meet
- 2 forces must act along opposite in direc�on to at a common point.
opposite direc�ons. other two forces. - Resultant of any two forces
- Both forces must lie on - Resultant of any two forces must be equal in
same plane (Coplanar) must be equal in magnitude and opposite in
magnitude to third force. direc�on to third force.

UNIT 13: THE WORLD OF LIFE

• Grouping of organisms into different levels based on their common characteris�cs is known as
classifica�on.
• Significance of classifica�on of organisms
o Easy to study about them.
o Easy to iden�fy organisms with economical use to human.
o Ability to get an idea about whole biosphere, without studying every organism.

Ar�ficial Classifica�on Aristotle

Natural Classifica�on Carolus Linnaeus
- Considers the morphological, physiological,
cytological, and molecular biological
features.
Five Kingdom Classifica�on Robert Whitaker
Three Domain Classifica�on Carl Woes

Hierarchical level of organiza�on

Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

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 Domain Archaea Domain Bacteria Domain Eukarya
Prokaryotes (Without an organized Nucleus) Prokaryotes (Without an organized Nucleus) Eukaryotes (With an organized Nucleus)
Not sensi�ve to an�bio�cs Sensi�ve to an�bio�cs Not sensi�ve to an�bio�cs
Live in Extreme Condi�ons Live Everywhere Live in different environments
Ex: Halophiles, Methanogens Ex: Cyanobacteria
Harmful effects
Cause Diseases
Food Spoilage
Useful effects
Produce dairy products.
Decompose dead bodies.
To fix atmospheric nitrogen

Reproduce by budding, binary

fission and fragmenta�on

Domain Eukarya
Kingdom Pro�sta Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Kingdom
Plantae Animalia
Protozoa Algae - Heterotrophic
Unicellular Mul�cellular - Saprophy�c (Feed on plant &
except diatoms, animal material)
Heterotrophic Chlamydomonas - Cell wall made up of chi�n.
Ex: Amoeba,
Paramecium, Photosynthe�c Useful effects
Euglena Ex: Ulva, - To decompose bodies
Spirogyra - To produce an�bio�c
Useful effects - As a supplement of protein
- Algae act as primary producer.
- Algae form mutualis�c Harmful effects
associa�ons with fungi called - Food spoilage
lichens. - Cause diseases to humans
- To make alginic acid used to
make ice cream. Reproduce by budding and spore
Harmful effects produc�on.
- Protozoans cause Amoebiasis,
Malaria and Sleeping sickness.

Reproduce by fragmenta�on, binary

fission, and spore produc�on.

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 Kingdom Plantae
Non – flowering plants Flowering plants (Angiosperms)
Seedless plant Seed Plant Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous
(Gymnosperms)
Ex: Marchan�a, Ex: Cycas, Pinus Ex: Paddy, Grass Ex: Chilies, Jak, Blue
Poganatum, Coconut lotus
Seleginella
Small Plants Large Plants 1 cotyledon 2 cotyledons
Autotrophic Unbranched Branched
Fibrous root Tap root
Parallel vena�on Re�culate vena�on
Trimerous flowers Tetra or Pentamerous
Flowers
No secondary growth Secondary growth

Kingdom Animalia
Invertebrates Vertebrates
Phylum Cnidaria Phylum Phylum Phylum Phylum Phylum
Annelida Mollusca Arthropoda Echinodermata Chordata
Ex: Hydra, Sea Ex: Earthworm Ex: Snail, Cutle Ex: Cockroach, Ex: Star fish, sea
anemone, Jelly Leech, Nereis fish, Octopus Buterfly Urchin
Fish

First organisms So�-bodied

Medusa  Can
to evolve a animals All are marine.
Move
cavity called
Polyp  Fixed.
coelom. Triploblas�c Tagma  Head, Triploblas�c
Diploblas�c Thorax, Penta Radial
Internally and Body divided as, Abdomen Symmetry
Radial Symmetry
externally head, muscular
Predators
segmented foot, visceral Triploblas�c Presence of
mass. Jointed Limbs water vascular
Coelenteron
Triploblas�c system
cavity acts as the
Bilateral Bilateral Presence of
diges�ve tract
Symmetry Symmetry exoskeleton. Tube feet for
Reproduc�on (Chi�nous respira�on &
Reproduce. Reproduce cu�cle) locomo�on
through budding
Asexually & sexually
and Sexual
Sexually Bilateral Closely related
Symmetry to Chordata

Shows Sexual Dimorphism

(Separate male & female organisms)

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 Phylum Chordata
Class Pisces Class Amphibia Class Rep�lia Class Aves Class Mammalia
Streamlined body Streamlined body
shape shape
Body covered with Body covered with Legs are covered
scales dry skin & scales with scales
Thin Mucous skin Skin covered with Skin Covered with
feathers hair
2 Chambered Heart 3 Chambered Heart 4 chambered hearts
Fins for swimming & Polydactyl Limbs for locomo�on
Body balance
Poikilothermic (Cold blooded) Homeothermic (Warm blooded)
External Fer�liza�on Internal Fer�liza�on
Lateral line system Water is essen�al Ventricle is Largest bird  Possess mammary,
to detect vibra�ons. to complete life par�ally divided. Ostrich sweat, sebaceous
cycle. Smallest Bird  glands.
Car�laginous Hummingbird
Endoskeleton Metamorphosis Possess ear lobes.
(Chondrichthyes) or Presence of a beak
Bony Endoskeleton Possess placenta
(Osteichthyes) Body temperature and embryonic
does not change membrane
according to
environment.

Binomial Nomenclature

• Introduced by Carolus Linnaeus

• Binomial nomenclature is a system where the scien�fic name of a species is composed of two
parts: the generic name (first epithet) and the specific name (second epithet). The name is
writen in La�n or Greek. The first leter of the generic name is capitalized, while the specific
name is writen in lowercase. When writen by hand, the name must be underlined, and when
printed, it should be italicized.
For example, the scien�fic name of the mango tree is.
Writen  Mangifera indica
Printed  Mangifera indica

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UNIT 14: CONTINUITY OF LIFE

• Reproduc�on is the biological process by which organisms produce offspring, ensuring the
con�nua�on of their species.

Reproduc�on
Asexual reproduc�on Sexual reproduc�on
Occurs through spores or vegeta�ve part Occurs due to fusion of two gametes
Contribu�on from one parent Contribu�on from two parents
No produc�on of gametes Gametes are produced
Large number of offspring in short �me Increase in number of offspring is slow
Meiosis does not occur Meiosis occurs
Can be seen in primi�ve plants and animals Can be seen in evolu�onary advanced animals

Asexual Reproduc�on of Plants

Asexual reproduc�on
Natural vegeta�ve propaga�on Ar�ficial vegeta�ve propaga�on
1. Roots Curry leaves, Bread fruit 1. Roo�ng of stem cu�ng
2. Leaves Begonia, Akkapana - Twig should not have tender leaf/fruit/flowers
3. Suckers Banana, Paddy
4. Runners Gotukola, Sweet potato 2. Layering
5. Bulbils Pineapple, Jute Ini�a�ng roots while it is s�ll atached to plants.
6. Underground Stem Rhizome – Horizontal to - Ground Layering
plant - Aerial Layering
Func�ons Ex: Ginger, Turmeric
 Vegeta�ve 3. Gra�ing
propaga�on - Connec�ng Twig/bud of a plant of some or closely
 Storage of food related species.
 Spending dormant
period in adverse Corm – Vertical to plant
clima�c condi�ons - Ex: Yams, Colocasia
Perenna�on

Scion  Good Characteris�cs, Free from pest and

Bulb – Found in layers. diseases
Ex: Onion, Leeks Stock  Strong root system, Uniform growth

- Can be only done in dicotyledonous plants due to

presence of cambium

Stem Tuber – Swollen 4. Tissue culture

Ends - A technique in which plant �ssues are grown in a
Ex: Potatoes controlled, sterile environment.

- Offspring are clones (iden�cal to mother)

- Large number of plants at the same �me
- Large number of plants in limited space

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Sexual Reproduc�on of Plants

Calyx Protects the flower parts

when the flower is in bud
stage.
Corolla Atracts insects for
pollina�on.
Androecium/Stamen Produc�on of male gametes
Gynoecium/Pis�l Ovules (female gamete cells
are present in this)
This produces the fruit

• Bisexual Flowers  Flowers that consist of both male and female parts.
• Unisexual Flowers  Flowers that consist of either male or female parts.
o Staminate Flowers  Flowers that consist of male parts (Androecium/Stamen)
o Pis�llate Flowers  Flowers that consist of female parts (Gynoecium/Pis�l)
• Monoecious Plants  Plants that bear both Staminate and Pis�llate Flowers.
• Dioecious Plants  Plants that bear either Staminate or Pis�llate Flowers.
• Pollina�on is the process where matured pollen is transferred s�gma of the flower of the same
species.

Self-Pollina�on Cross-Pollina�on
It is when a flower's pollen is transferred to its It is when pollen from one flower is transferred
own s�gma. to the s�gma of a different flower. This helps to
a genera�on with new characteris�cs.

Adapta�on by plants to avoid self-pollina�on

Unisexual Flowers Bear either Staminate or Pis�llate Flowers
Self-Sterile Fruits are not developed if self-pollina�on occurs
Hercogamy Posi�oning of stamens and s�gma at a distance
Extrose Stamen S�gma is posi�oned straight while stamens are bent or vice versa
Dichogamy Stamens are matured earlier than Pis�l or vice versa

• Agents of Pollina�on
o Animals Ex: Passion fruit, Winged Bean
o Wind Ex: Paddy, Corn
o Water Ex: Vallisneria

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• A�er Fer�liza�on zygote develops to form an embryo
o Wall of Ovary  Pericarp
o Ovary  Fruit
o Wall of ovule  Seed Coat
o Ovule  Seed
• Developing fruits without fer�liza�on is known as parthenocarpy. Such fruits are seedless.
• Methods of Dispersal of fruits and seeds

o Animals
o Water
o Wind
o Explosive mechanism

• Factors essen�al for seed germina�on

Viability of seed, Air (Oxygen), Water of moisture, Temperature
• Dormancy in seeds is a state where seeds stop growing and remain inac�ve even a�er
essen�al factors are present. Embryo not being matured; Impermeability of Testa for Water
or Oxygen are the factors for this.
• Seed germina�on occurs mainly in two ways.
o Epigeal germina�on
o Hypogeal germina�on

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Reproduc�on of man

Secondary Sexual Characteris�cs

Male Female
Hormone  Testosterone Hormone  Estrogen and Progesterone
- Shoulders grow wide. - Mammary glands grow.
- Larynx enlarges and voice becomes deep. - Pubic region widens.
- Testes start to produce sperms - Release of ova from ovaries

Male reproduc�ve System

Testes/Tes�cles - Located in scrotum sac.

- Sperms are produced in the seminiferous tubules
Pair of epididymis - Sperms are temporarily stored in it
Pair of vasa deferens - Tube that brings sperms from epididymis
Pair of seminal vesicles - Glands associated with male reproduc�ve system.
Prostate gland - Secrete a white fluid (Provide nutri�on to sperms)
Pair of Cowper’s glands - Sperms + White Fluid  Seminal Fluid/Semen
Penis - Ejacula�on of semen into female reproduc�ve system.
- Tip of penis is called glans penis; it is covered with foreskin
- The temperature on the testes should be lower than body temperate to produce healthy
sperms. There it is present outside the body in a sac called scrotum.
- Produc�on of sperm cells, Ejacula�on of sperms into female reproduc�ve system and
produc�on of testosterone are the ac�vi�es of male reproduc�ve system.

Female reproduc�ve system

Ovary - There is a pair of ovaries.

- Cortex and Medulla are two zones observed in the cross sec�on.
- Produc�on of ova starts at the birth of a female
Fallopian tube - Presence of fimbria at the lower end of this tube
- Fer�liza�on occurs here
Uterus - Presence of three zones; Fundus, Body, Cervix
- Two fallopian tubes are connected to the fundus
Vagina/Endocervical canal - Starts from cervix and opens to exterior from vulva
- Developing ova, Facilita�ng the development of fetus, Produc�on of Estrogen and
Progesterone are the ac�vi�es of female reproduc�ve system.
Menstrual cycle (28 Days)
Changes that take place in the ovary Changes that take place in the uterus
1. Follicular Phase (14 Days) 1. Menstrual Phase (4 Days)
- Progesterone level decreases
- Primary follicle turns to graafian follicle - Uterus walls are broken and expelled out of
under the influence of Follicle S�mula�ng
the body through vagina with blood.
Hormone
2. Prolifera�ve Phase (10 Days)
- Ovary Secrets Estrogen
- Rebuilding the walls broken by Estrogen

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 2. Luteal Phase (14 Days) 3. Secretory phase (14 Days)

- Bursts the graafian follicle and release ovum - Uterine wall thickens and blood supply
to fallopian tube under the influence of increase due to Progesterone.
Luteinizing Hormone. - Body temperature slightly increases.
- Graafian Follicle  Corpus Luteum  Corpus
Albicans  Fade off
- Ovary secretes Progesterone

• Fer�liza�on is the process by which a male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete (ovum) fuse to form a
single cell called a zygote.
• Zygote divides to increase the number of cells and form Morula.
• Implanta�on is the process by which a morula ataches itself to the lining of the uterus to begin its
development into an embryo.

• Substances that pass from mother to fetus – Nutrients, Oxygen, Pathogens, Drugs
• Substances that pass from fetus to mother – Excretory products, Carbon Dioxide
• Blood is not exchanged.
03 Months - Takes human form.
- Development of nail starts.
- Sex organs are developed
04 Months - Development of skeleton starts.
- Hair begins to grow
05 Months - Ability to feel the movements of the Fetus
06 Months - Eyebrows and eyelashes have developed
07 Months - Eyelids open
08 Months - Weight is about 2.5KG
09 Months - Weight is about 2.5KG – 3.5KG
Table: Changes in Fetus with time

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• Parturi�on is the process of giving birth to a baby. It marks the end of pregnancy and involves
the delivery of the fetus and the placenta from the mother's uterus.
• Sexually transmited diseases
o Gonorrhea – Blindness and lameness
Bacterial Infec�ons
o Syphilis – Blisters on sex organ
o Herpes – Highly painful blister on sex organ
o AIDS – Weakens the immune system. Viral Infec�ons

UNIT 15: HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND ITS APPLICATION

𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒂𝒂 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
• Hydrosta�c pressure is the pressure exerted by a liquid.
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒂𝒂 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 = 𝒉𝒉 ∗ 𝝆𝝆 ∗ 𝒈𝒈
Characteris�cs of liquid pressure

• Pressure in a liquid act in all direc�ons.

• Pressure at the same level is same.
• Pressure of a liquid only depends on the height of the liquid column.
• Pressure in a liquid does not depend on the shape of the container.
Transmission of Pressure in a liquid

𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑃2

𝐹𝐹1 𝐹𝐹2
=
𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2

𝐹𝐹1 ∗ 𝐴𝐴2 = 𝐹𝐹2 ∗ 𝐴𝐴1

Used in Hydraulic press, Hoist,

Brake system.

Pressure due to gases

• Atmospheric pressure was measured by Torricelli for the first �me.

• Mercury barometer and Aneroid barometer can be used to measure atmospheric pressure.

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• Applica�ons
o When drinking with a straw
o Removing the water in a tank using a siphon method
o Ac�on of a rubber sucker

• Upthrust is the upward force exerted by a liquid on an object submerged in it. This force acts
against the weight of the object and makes it feel lighter when placed in the fluid.
• The magnitude of upthrust is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object, as
described by Archimedes' principle:
𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼 = 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫

Floats  UT > W
Submerged & Float  UT = W
Sinks  UT < W.

• A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the density of a liquid. It works based on the
principle of buoyancy(Upthrust).
o If the liquid is denser, the hydrometer floats higher.
o If the liquid is less dense, the hydrometer sinks lower.

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UNIT 16: CHANGES IN MATTER

Changes in Mater
Physical Change Chemical Change
A change in the appearance of a substance A change where the chemical composi�on of a
without altering its chemical composi�on. substance is altered, resul�ng in the forma�on
of a new substance.

Chemical Change
Chemical Combina�on Reac�on Two or more substances combine to form a single product.

General Form: A + B  C

Example  2Mg + O2  2MgO

Key Feature: Forma�on of one product.

Chemical Decomposi�on A single compound breaks down into two or more simpler
Reac�on substances.

General Form: A  B + C

Example  CaCO3  CaO + CO2

 2KMnO4  K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2

Key Feature: One reactant splits into mul�ple products.

Single Displacement Reac�on One element displaces another element in a compound.

General Form: A+BC → AC+B

Example  Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4

Key Feature: A more reac�ve element replaces a less

reac�ve one.
Double Displacement Reac�on Defini�on: Two compounds exchange their ions to form two
new compounds.

General Form: AB + CD→ AD + CB

Example: CaCl2 + Na2CO3  CaCO3 + 2NaCl

Key Feature: Exchange of ions between two compounds.

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• The Ac�vity Series (or Reac�vity Series) is a list of metals arranged in order of their reac�vity,
from the most reac�ve to the least reac�ve.
Readily Reacts with O2 Reacts with O2 at high Don’t react with O2.

K Na Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Sn Pb H Cu Hg Ag Pt Au
Potasium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminium Zinc Iron Tin Lead Hydrogen Copper Mercury Silver Pla�num Gold

Readily Reacts with H2O Doesn’t react with Reacts with Steam Don’t React with steam.
cold water, Reacts
with hot water
and steam.

Uses of Ac�vity Series

• Electrochemical Applica�ons
• Metal Extrac�on Methods
Extrac�on of metals from their ore based on their reac�vity.
K Na Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Sn Pb H Cu Hg Ag Pt Au
Potasium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminium Zinc Iron Tin Lead Hydrogen Copper Mercury Silver Pla�num Gold

Electrolysis Method Several chemical reac�on or

Electrolysis Reduc�on
or Reduc�on physical methods
Method

Iron Extrac�on

During extrac�on of iron, following reac�ons occur in the blast furnace.

• Coke burns in air forming carbon dioxide.

C + O2  CO2

• Carbon Dioxide reacts with coke giving carbon monoxide gas.

CO2 + C  2CO

• Carbon monoxide reduces the iron ore. This produces liquid iron.

Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3CO2

• Calcium carbonate decomposes giving calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.

CaCO3  CaO + CO2

• Silicon dioxide or Aluminum dioxide (impuri�es) react with Calcium oxide to form
slag.

SiO2 + CaO  CaSiO3

Al2O3 + CaO  CaAl2O4
The slag floats on molten iron. Molten iron and liquid slag are separately flown out.
1000-1900 °C

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 Gases H2 O2 CO2
Physical Density is less than Density is higher than Density is higher than
Property normal air. normal air. normal air
Rela�ve molecular mass: 2 Rela�ve molecular mass: 32 Rela�ve molecular mass: 44
Slightly solluable in water Slightly soluable in water Slightly soluable in water
Colourless Colourless Colourless
Odorless Odorless Odorless
Chemical Combus�ble gas Supporter of combus�on Non-supporter of
Property combus�on
Laboratory Zn + 2HCl  ZnCl2 + H2 2KMnO4  K2MnO4 + MnO2 CaCO3 + HCl  CaCl2 + CO2
Produc�on + O2 + H2O
Collec�on Downward displacement Upward displacement of air Upward displacement of air
method of air

Downward displacement Downward displacement of Downward displacement of

of water water water

Reac�on with Goes off with a pop sound Flame Increases Goes off

burning
splinter
Confirma�on Lime water doesn’t turn Lime water doesn’t turn Lime water turns milky
test milky milky
Ca(OH)2 +CO2 → CaCO3 +
H2O

With excess of CO2

CaCO3 + CO2  Ca(HCO3)2
(colourless)
Uses Fuel in rocketry Essen�al for respira�on for Used to ex�nguish fires
Produc�on of margarine all organisms Produc�on of soda water
from vegetable oil Essen�al for combus�on and fizzy drinks
Extrac�on of iron

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Prepara�on of hydrogen gas in laboratory
The hydrogen gas produced is passed through
the delivery tube into the gas jar.
The water level in the gas jar drops as hydrogen
displaces the water.
When a burning splint is brought near the
mouth of the gas jar, the collected hydrogen gas
burns with a characteris�c 'pop' sound,
confirming the presence of hydrogen.
Prepara�on of oxygen gas in laboratory
When potassium permanganate is heated in the
boiling tube, it decomposes to release oxygen
gas.
The oxygen gas displaces water in the gas jar,
filling it with an invisible gas.
When a glowing splint is inserted into the gas
jar, it relights, confirming the presence of
oxygen.

Prepara�on of oxygen gas in laboratory

When calcium carbonate reacts with dilute
hydrochloric acid, bubbles of gas are observed in
the conical flask.
Gas bubbles rise through the water and displace
it in the gas jar, filling the jar with carbon
dioxide.
Test: When the collected gas is passed through
lime water, the lime water turns milky,
confirming the presence of carbon dioxide gas.

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UNIT 17: RATE OF REACTIONS

Ca(OH)2 +CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

Reactants Products

• Rate of reac�on is the amount of change occurred in a unit �me

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 / 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
• Factors affec�ng the rate of reac�on
o Surface area of the reactants
o Temperature at which the reac�on occurs
o Concentra�on of the reactants
o Presence of a catalyst
When these factors increase the rate of reac�on increases.
Catalyst
Catalyst are the substances that increase the rate of reac�on, without being chemically consumed
during the reac�on.

Chemical Industry Catalyst used

Manufacture of Ammonia (Haber process) Fe – Porous iron
Manufacture of sulphuric acid (Contact process) V2O5 – Vanadium Pentaoxide
Manufacture of Nitric Acid - HNO3 (by oxidizing ammonia) Pt – Pla�num
Margarine produc�on Ni – Nickel

Inhibitors
Inhibitors are the substances that decrease the rate of reac�on.
UNIT 18: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 ∗ 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
Work done  Nm/J

• Energy is the ability to do work and it uses the same unit Joules (J)
o Kine�c enery is the energy stored in a moving object
𝟏𝟏
𝑬𝑬𝒌𝒌 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐
o Poten�al energy is the energy stored in an object due to its change in posi�on or shape.
𝑬𝑬𝒑𝒑 = 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

• Instances where poten�al energy is used in daily life

o Sledge Hammer
o Pile and Tower

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• According to law of conserva�on energy,
𝑬𝑬𝒌𝒌 = 𝑬𝑬𝒑𝒑
𝟏𝟏
𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 = 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝟐𝟐
• Power is the amount of work done in a unit �me.
𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 =
𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
Unit: Js-1/Wat (W)

UNIT 19: CURRENT ELECTRICITY

• A current of electric charges flowing through a conductor is known as an electric current.

• Conductor is a material that allow a current of electrons to pass easily through it.
• The reason for electricity to flow easily through metals is because they have free electrons.
• Electrons flow from nega�ve to posi�ve terminal, therefore electric current move from posi�ve
to nega�ve terminal. Symbol of a Battery

Current (I) Voltage (V) Resistance (R)

Defini�on A current of electric The electric poten�al
Barrier to the flow of
charges flowing through a difference between two
Current.
circuit. points
Instrument to measure Small  Galvanometer
Voltmeter Ohm Meter
Large  Ammeter
Unit Amphere (A) Volts (V) Ohms (Ω)
Connec�on to circuit Series Parallel Series/Parallel

• Electromo�ve force (EMF) is the force by which the nega�ve terminal of the electric source
released electrons to the external circuit. EMF = Voltage, when there in no current flow
• For a current to flow through a conducter, it is necessary for a poten�al difference to exist across
it.

No current flow No current flow Have current flow.

Series connection vs Parallel connection

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• Ohm’s Law is a basic principle in electricity that explains how voltage, current, and resistance are
related. In simple words:

Ohm's Law says that the when the temperature remains constant current (I) flowing through a
conductor is directly propor�onal to the voltage (V) and inversely propor�onal to the
resistance (R). This rela�onship is expressed as:

V=I×R

So, if you increase the voltage, more current flows, and if you increase the resistance, less
current flows.

Factors affec�ng the resistance of a conductor

o Cross sec�on area of the conductor
o Length of the conductor
o Material composi�on od the conductor

Types of Resistors
Permanent Resistor Variable Resistor Light Dependant Resistor

A type of resistor which has a A variable resistor, also known A type of resistor whose
fixed resistance value that as a poten�ometer or resistance changes with the
does not change. rheostat, allows you to adjust amount of light falling on it.
its resistance manually. This
It is commonly used in circuits can be done by turning a knob The more light, the lower the
where a constant amount of or slider. resistance, and the less light,
resistance is needed, such as in the higher the resistance.
power supplies or electronic It is used when you need to
devices. control the resistance and LDRs are used in light-sensing
therefore the current in a applica�ons such as automa�c
circuit. Common applica�ons ligh�ng systems, streetlights.
include volume controls in
audio equipment and light
dimmers.

(Values will be provided in the paper)

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• Combina�on of resistors
o Series Connec�on

𝑹𝑹 = 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 + 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 + 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹

R increases when connected in series

o Parallel Connec�on

𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝑹 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹
R decreases when connected in parallel

UNIT 20: INHERITANCE

• Inherited features that are rarely seen

o Blue Eyes (appear only if both parents contribute the gene)
o Albinism – No melanin (Pigment that gives color to the skin, hair, and eyes)
o Polydactyly – More than five fingers or toes.
o Syndactyly – Less than five fingers or toes.
• The first person to study about the transmission of inherited characteris�cs is Gregor Mendel.
He is the father of gene�cs. He discovered the Monohybrid cross.
The plant chosen for this was Pisum sa�vum (garden pea)
Reasons to choose:
o Can be easily grown
o Can obtain pure breeding plants
o Presence of contras�ng characteris�cs (seven)
• Dominant  The character that suppresses another.
• Recessive  The character which is supressed by another character.
• Genotype  The gene expression of a characteris�c
o Ex: RR:Rr:rr => 1:2:1
• Phenotype  The observable characteris�c
o Ex: Round:Wrinkled => 3:1

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Gene�c Diagram
T  Tall
t  Short

Genotype  TT : Tt : t  1 : 2 : 1
Phenotype  Tall : Short  1 : 3

• The double helical structure of DNA was first discovered by two scien�sts named Watson and
Crick.
• The genes that are present in the same chromosome which are not segregated independently
are known as linked genes. Gene Linkage was discovered by Morgan.
• Heredity is the transmission of inherited characters to next genera�on.
• The process by which those characters transmit is known as inheritance.
Sex Determina�on

• Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 of which are autosomal and one pair determines
sex. Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome
(XY). During reproduc�on, each parent contributes one sex chromosome. Eggs always carry an X
chromosome, while sperm can carry either an X or a Y. If an X-carrying sperm fer�lizes an egg,
the offspring will be female (XX). If a Y-carrying sperm fer�lizes an egg, the offspring will be male
(XY). Thus, the father's sperm determines the sex of the child, with a 50% probability of either
outcome.

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Human inherited disorders

• Sex Linked
o Hemophilia – A gene�c disorder where the blood doesn't clot properly.
o Color Blindness – A condi�on where an individual has difficulty dis�nguishing between
red and green colors.
Till now Hemophilia and Colour Blindness only occurs in males. Since males only have one X chromosome, if
that X carries the defective gene, they will express the condition. Females have two X chromosomes, so even
if one X carries the defective gene, the other X may provide a normal copy of the gene, preventing the
condition from manifesting.

• Autosomal
o Albinism – A gene�c condi�on where an individual has litle or no melanin, the pigment
responsible for giving color to the skin, hair, and eyes.
o Thalassemia – A group of inherited blood disorders that affect the produc�on of
hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body.
 Marriage between blood rela�ves affect this.

Applica�on of knowledge of inheritance

Humans have long selec�vely bred plants and animals with desirable traits, such as high milk
produc�on in cows or pest resistance in crops. With the understanding of gene�cs, this prac�ce has
evolved into a technology, leading to the development of improved varie�es like seedless fruits and
high-yield crops.

Gene�c engineering

• Food an Agricultural field

o Pest resistant crops
o Rice enriched with Vitamin A
• Industrial field
o Produc�on of enzymes such as Amylase
o Produc�on of some amino acids
• Medical field
o Produc�on of Insulin (E Coli Bacteria)
o Produc�on of proteins including growth hormones
o Produc�on of an�bio�cs

• Ar�ficial breeding is a reproduc�ve technology used in animals and plants to enhance breeding
and improve gene�c quality.
Advantages: Increase the harvest, Produce Variety with High Nutri�on, Pest and Disease resistant.
Disadvatage: Valuable gene in original forms may dissapear in future genera�on.

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UNIT 1: LIVING TISSUES

• A group of cells with a common origin that has been modified to perfom a par�cular func�on in
the body is known as a �ssue.
• Plant �ssues can be divided into two groups according to the ability of cell division.
o Meristema�c �ssues
o Permanent �ssues

Meristema�c Tissue
Divide ac�vely by mitosis to produce new cells
Growth of plant takes place due to this �ssue
Apical Meristem Intercalary Meristem Lateral Meristem
Found at shoot apex, root apex Found at nodes Found laterally in stem and roots.
and axillary buds Increase the length of the Increase the diameter of the
Increase the height of the plant internodes plant
Permanent Tissue
Lost its abilty to undergo cell division
Simple Permanent Tissue Complex Permanent Tissue
One type of cells collected together Different types of cells collected together
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma Xylem Phloem
Found in so� parts Modified Sclerieds Fibre
of the plant such paranchyma cells Found in hard
leaves, seeds, Found in parts of the plant
flesh Herbaceous stem, such as seed coat,
Most Abundant veins of dicot coconut fiber.
leaves Cells present, Cells present,
1. Xylem Vessel 1. Seive tube
Element elements (Living)

2. Tracheids 2. Companion Cells

Living Tissue Living Tissue Non living �ssue (Living)
Nucleus is present Nucleus is present Nucleus is absent 3. Xylem Fiber
peripherally in 3. Phloem Fiber
cytoplasm 4. Xylem (Dead)
Cell wall made up Corners of the cell Cell wall is fully Parenchyma
of thin cellulose walls are thickened thickened with 4. Phloem
lignin Parenchyma(Living)
Intercelluar spaces Intercellular space No intercellular
are present may be present space
Isodiametric shape Polygonal and Variable in shape
elongated
Func�on Func�on Func�on Func�on Func�on
Photosynthesis Photosynthesis Provides support Transport of water Transloca�on of
Food Storage Providing support and mineral food
Storage of water Provides support
Providing support

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Animal Tissues
1. Epithelial �ssue
o Loca�on: Lines up the free surface (Wall of urinary bladder, Skin)
o Cells are placed on a basement membrane
o Cells are �ghly packed
o No blood supply
o Func�ons: Percep�on of s�muli, Secretory func�on,Filtra�on func�on
2. Connec�ve �ssue
o Composed of different types of cells and fibres
o Possess a never and blood supply
o Func�on: Provide connec�ons between �ssue an organ. (Blood �ssue, Bone Tissue)
3. Muscle �ssue
o Made up of muscle cells or muscle fibres
o Ability to contract and relax
o Posses a good blood supply

Muscle Tissue
Smooth Muscle Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle
Spindle shape Long cylindrical shape Short cylindrical shape
Uni nucleated Mul� nucleated Uni nucleated
Involuntary Voluntary Involuntary
Doesn’t get fa�gue easily Get fa�gue easily Never get fa�gue
Unbrached Unbranched Branched
Intercalary disc is absent Intercalary disc is absent Intercalary disc is present
No stra�ons Have stra�ons Have stra�ons
Found in organs with cavity Found atached to skeletons, Found in Heart ONLY
such as Bladder, Diges�ve Bicep muscle, Tricep muscle
system, Uterus

4. Nervous �ssue
o Structural and func�onal unit is neuron
o Specialized to tranmit impulses
o Composed of two parts, cell body and nerve fibres.
o Axon transmits impulses away from the cell body
o Dendrites transmit impulses to the cell body
o Myelin sheath increased the speed of transmission of impulses
o Func�on: To receive the informa�on from the receptors and to transmit them to the
effectors.

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UNIT 2: PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• U�lizing the light energy the cells containing chlorophyll in green plants synthesize food using
carbondioxide and water as raw materials. This process is called photosynthesis.
Factors affec�ng photosynthesis
Green plants obtain the necessary components for photosynthesis in the following ways:
o Water is absorbed from the soil by root hairs through osmosis and transported to the
leaves via the xylem.
o Carbon dioxide is taken in from the atmosphere through stomata and diffuses to the
mesophyll cells.
o Chlorophyll, found in chloroplasts, absorbs light energy.
Therefore, the key factors affec�ng photosynthesis are chlorophyll, water, light energy, and carbon
dioxide.

• Plants produce their food in the form of glucose, Store in the form of starch, and transport in
the form of sucrose.
Starch test to confirm that photosynthesis has taken place
Step 1: Pluck a leaf from plant which was in sunlight – To make sure photosynthesis has occurred.
Step 2: Boil the leaf in water - To break the cell wall.
Step 3: Double boil the leaf in alcohol using water bath – Alcohol to remove the chlorophyll, Double
bath because alcohol is highly inflammable.
Step 4: Wash the leaf – To remove the alcohol
Step 5: Put a few drops of iodine solu�on – To check whether starch is present
Observa�on:- The leaf turned pale in color and the alcohol turns green in color when boiled in an
alcohol solu�on. If starch is present, the leaf turns blue.
Conclusion:- Photosynthesis has taken place.
Experiment to show that light energy is required for photosynthesis
Step 1: Select 2 leaves similar to each other kept in dark for 48 hours. – To remove the starch which
was produced before
Step 2: Cover a part of leaf A with a black polythene. – To prevent sunlight
entering
Step 3: Cover a part of leaf B with colorless polythene. – To allow the
sunlight to enter
Step 4: Keep it under sunlight for 3 hours.
Step 5: Prepare the leaf for starch test.
Observa�on: No color change in the covered area of leaf A. Covered area of leaf B turns dark purple
Conclusion: Light energy is necessary for photosynthesis.

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Experiment to show that Carbon dioxide
is required for photosynthesis
Step 1: Select 2 similar leaves of the above plant.
Step 2: Add KOH/NaOH to C. – To absorb CO2
Step 3: And equal amount of water to D to the transparent
polythene bag.
Step 4: Place the plant in sunlight for 3 to 5 hrs.
Step 5: Detach leaves C & D and carry out starch test.
Observa�on: No color change in leaf D, leaf C turns dark purple.
Conclusion: CO2 is essen�al for photosynthesis.

Experiment to show that Chlorophyll is required for photosynthesis

Step 1: Pluck a mosaic leaf (a leaf with different colors).
Step 2: Draw a sketch of it with its paterns.
Step 3: Carry out starch test.
Observa�on:- There is no color change in the white regions but a colour change can be observed in
green colour regions.

Conclusion:- Chlorophyll is essen�al for photosynthesis.

An experiment cannot be designed in the laboratory to test the need of water for photosynthesis,
because without water, the plant in the control experiment will die.

Experiment to show that Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

Aqua�c plant:- Hydrilla or Vallisnaria

Observa�on:- Gas bubbles are released from the aqua�c
plant. The splinter burns with a bright flame.
Conclusion:- O2 is given out during photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is crucial for life on Earth. It converts light energy into chemical energy (food) that
sustains all organisms, either directly or indirectly. It is the primary source of oxygen gas necessary
for aerobic life and combus�on. Photosynthesis also removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
helping to maintain the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide and playing a key role in the carbon
cycle.

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UNIT 3: MIXTURES

• Mixtures are mater consis�ng of two or more components which are not chemically combined,
and can be separated by physical methods.

Mixtures
Homogenous Mixtures Heterogeneous Mixtures
- Components cannot be observed separately - Components can be dis�nguished from one
from one another. another.
- Physcial proper�es such as colour, - Physical proper�es such as colour,
transparency and density are iden�cal transparency and density are different from
everywhere. place to place.
- Homogenous mixtures are also known as
solu�ons.

Solu�on = Solvent(component present in high amount) + Solute(component present in less amount)

• The solubility of a solute is the maximum amount of solute which dissolves in 100 g of the
solvent at a certain temperature.
• Factors Affec�ng Sollubility
o Temperature
When temperature is high sollubility is high but solubility of gas is low.

o Nature of Solute
o Nature of Solvent

Polar solutes are soluble in polar solvents.

While non-polar solutes are soluble in non-
polar solvents

• Sollubility of a gas depends on, temperature and pressure.

Composi�on of a mixture can be expessed in five ways

1. Mass frac�on (m/m)

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴 =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵
Examples:

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2. Volume Frac�on (v/v)
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴 =
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵

Examples:

3. Mole Frac�on
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵

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4. Mass / Volume (m/v)
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Example:

5. Moles / Volume (n/v)

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Example:

Sepera�on of compounds in a mixture

1. Mechanical Sepera�on
The separa�on of components in a mixture using the difference of their physical proper�es such
as density, par�cle size, par�cle shape, magne�c proper�es and electric proper�es is called
mechanical separa�on
2. Vaporiza�on or Evapora�on
Vaporiza�on  Conversion of substances from liquid to gas a�er atanining the boiling point.
Evapora�on  Conversion of substances from liquid to gas before ataining
the boiling point.
3. Filtra�on
Filtra�on works by passing the mixture through a filter, which allows the liquid
or gas to flow through while trapping the solid par�cles.

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4. Crystalliza�on
Crystalliza�on is the method of separa�ng solid substances by concentra�on
when a solute that can turn into a solid is present in a solu�on.
Ex: Producing sugar from Sugar Cane
5. Re-Crystalliza�on
Forming pure substances from impure crystalline substance.
6. Solvent Extrac�on
Solvent extrac�on is the method of drawing up a substance from a solvent in which it is less
soluble, into another solvent in which it is more soluble, where the two solvents are immiscible
and are in contact with each other.
Ex: Iodine dissolves more in Carbon
tetrachloride than in water, there solvent
extrac�on can be used to remove iocine
from aqueos solu�on into
Carbontetrachloride.

Used in the produc�on of medicinal

extracts & po�ons
7. Dis�lla�on
Used to separate vola�le(boiling point < 300OC) components
Heat  Evaporate  Condense  Liquid

Dis�lla�on
Simple dis�lla�on Frac�onal dis�lla�on Steam dis�lla�on
To separate one vola�le To separate several vola�le To separate vola�le componenets
component component present in a living cell

Heat is supplied to mixture by steam

to prevent destruction of cells. The
Used to obtain dis�lled water living cell is dissolved in water to
from well water reduce boiling point to less than
100OC
Used to separate crude oil into
different hydro carbons (petrol, Used to extract essen�al oils
diesel, kerosene)

8. Chromatography
Chromatography is used to separate and iden�fy the
components present in a mixture containing non-
vola�le components.

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Uses of Chromatography:
- To find whether poisonous chemicals are mixed in water
- To iden�fy whether harmful substances are present in food
- To iden�fy ac�ve chemical compounds in plants

Salt Extrac�on
Salt produc�on in Sri Lankan salterns involves evapora�ng seawater in a series of three tank types:
large/shallow tanks; medium tanks; and small tanks. In the first tank, seawater evaporates un�l its
concentra�on doubles, causing calcium carbonate(used in iron industry) to precipitate. The water is
then moved to medium tanks where further evapora�on (to four �mes the original concentra�on)
causes calcium sulfate/Gypsum(Used in cement industry) to precipitate. Finally, the water flows to
small tanks where evapora�on to ten �mes the original concentra�on causes salt (sodium chloride)
to crystallize. Impuri�es like magnesium chloride and magnesium sulfate, which cause a biter taste
and hygroscopic proper�es, also precipitate. The remaining solu�on is called "mother liquor" or
"bitern." The harvested salt is stored for six months to allow these impuri�es to dissolve and be
removed by atmospheric moisture, leaving purer, less hygroscopic salt.

UNIT 4: WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

• A disturbance propaga�ng through a medium or space is known as a wave.

Waves
Mechanical Waves Electromagne�c waves
- Waves that require a medium for propaga�on - Do not need a medium
- Produced due to vibra�on of par�cles for propaga�on.
- Wave mo�on can be understood using a slinky - Travel through a
vaccum.
- They travel at the
speed of light.
(3x108ms-1) in vacuum.
- Not affected by
external electric or
magne�c fields.
Longitudinal Wave Transverse Wave
- Par�cles vibrate along the - Par�cles that vibrate perpendicular to
direc�on of propaga�on. the direc�on of propaga�on.
- Propagate due to
Compression and Ex: Water waves
Rarefrac�on
Ex: Sound waves

Crest  Point where par�cle has travelled

maximum in upward direc�on.
Trough  Point where par�cle has travelled
max in downward direc�on.

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 Displacement vs Time Graph Displacement vs Distance Graph

• Frequency is the number of oscilla�ons carried out in a unit �me.

Unit: Hz (Ossicila�on per second)
1 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 OR 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 × 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ

Electromagne�c spectrum

Gamma rays - Extremely high frequency.

- Used to destroy cancer cells, sterilize utensils and surgical
instruments.
X- Rays - Excessive exposure to X-Ray can cause cancer.
- Used to take photograph of internal organs of rthe human body,
Examine baggafe od airline passengers and cargo inside containers
transported by ships without opening them.
Ultra violet radia�on - Above Violet and is invisible to human eye
- Used to obtain Vitamin D, in hospitals to kill germs, in washing
powder, to iden�fy fake notes.
- Over exposure to UV Rays can cause cataract in the eye and
cancers in the skin
Visible light - The only type which can been with the naked eye
- Consist of Seven Colors (Colors in Rainbow – VIBGYOR)
- Used in photosynthesis and for vision
Infrared Radia�on - Below Red and is invisble to human eye
- Also known as Heat rays
- Used in TV Remotes and to measure body temperature
Microwaves - Used in RADAR systems, mobile phones, microwave ovens.
- Can cause adverse effects on our bodies.
- Excessive use of mobile phone can cause harm to the brain.
Radio waves - Have the longest wavelengths and shortest frequencies
- Used in long distance communica�ons.

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 Propaga�on of Sound Waves
Sound waves propagate through air via the vibra�on of a source, such as a loudspeaker
membrane. Sound travels as longitudinal waves, consis�ng of compressions and rarefac�ons,
generated by a vibra�ng source. While air is a common medium, sound travels faster through
water (around 1400 m/s) and even faster through solids like steel (around 5000 m/s). This
explains how whales communicate underwater and how train sounds can be heard through
rails. Some animals, like snakes, detect vibra�ons in the ground. Unlike light, sound requires a
medium to propagate; it cannot travel through a vacuum.

We see lightning almost instantly because light travels at an extremely high speed (3 x 10⁸ m/s).
However, we hear the thunder later because sound travels much slower. The speed of sound in
dry air is approximately 330 m/s at 0°C and increases with temperature (about 350 m/s at
30°C).

Characteris�cs of Sound
1. Pitch
Depends on Frequency
If Frequency increases pitch will increase and if frequency decreases pitch will decrease
2. Loudness
Depends on Amplitude
If Amplitude increases loudness will increase and if amplitude decreases loudness will
decrease
3. Quality of Sound
Depends on the shape of the graph

• Sounds of frequency below 20 Hz are called infra-sound and sounds of frequency above 20000
Hz are called ultrasound.
• Uses of ultrasound
o To find the depth of the
sea (SONAR)
o Used in Ultrasound
specs worn by blind
people
o Observe the womb and
the condi�on of the
fetus.
o To treat diseases
(blas�ng of bladder
stones). This technology
is known as lithotripsy.

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 Musical instruments
String instruments Percussion instruments Wind instruments
Genera�on of sound by Genera�on of sound by Genera�on of sound by
vibra�ng strings vbra�ng membrane. vibra�ng the air column

Frequency depends on Frequency depends on area Frequency depends on the

tension, length and mass per and tension of the membrane length of the air column
unit of the string.

Ex: Guitar, Sitar, Violin Ex: Thabla, Rabana, Dawla Ex: Flute, Saxophone, Trumpet

UNIT 5: GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

• Objects that emit light are known as luminous objects while objects that do not emit light are
known as non-luminous objects.
• Objects through which light passes are known as transparent objects. Objects through which
light does not pass at all are known as opaque objects. Objects through which light passes with
irregular changes of direc�on, making it impossible to see the objects on the other side clearly
are known as translucent objects.
• Types of beams of light,

Reflec�on
• The change in the propaga�on direc�on of the light
Plane Mirrors

• Two laws of reflec�on of light

o The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence lie on the
same plane.
o The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflec�on. That is i = r.
Produced image is virtual (cannot be projected on screen)
Distance from object to mirror is equal to distance from image to
mirror. (IM = OM)
Image is laterally inverted

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Curved mirrors

Concave mirrors

• Laws to remember
o Rays coming along the principal axis return along the principal axis a�er reflec�on.

o Rays coming parallel to the principal axis pass through the focal point a�er being
reflected.

o Rays coming towards a concave mirror through the focal point are reflected parallel to
the principal axis.

o Rays coming towards a concave mirror through the center of curvature are reflected
back through the center of curvature.

o Rays making a certain angle of incidence with the principal axis are reflected back with
an equal angle of reflec�on. i = r. Images formed by concave

Uses

> Den�st uses it to exmamine

teeth of the pa�ents
> Telescope

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Convex mirror

Characteris�cs: Virtual, Diminished, Upright, Image

formed between Pole and Focal Point.
Used in side mirrors of vehicles and security officers.

Refrac�on
• The bending of light rays upon entering one medium from another medium is known as
refrac�on of light.
• The reason for the refrac�on is the difference in the speeds of light from one medium to
another.

• Laws of refrac�on
o The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface drawn at the point of
incidence lie on the same plane.
o When light refracts from one medium to another medium, the ra�o of the sine of the
incident angle to the sine of the refracted angle is a constant that. This constant is
called the refrac�ve index of the second medium with respect to the first medium.
The law above is also called Snell's law.

• Total internal reflec�on (Occurs when a light ray travels from dense to rare medium and it bends
away from the normal)
o If the refracted ray travels through the interface of both
the medium, the incident angle is known as the cri�cal
angle.
o If the incident angle is greater than the cri�cal angle the refracted ray will travel back
into the same medium which is known as the total internal reflec�on.
 Used in op�cal fiber cables in endoscope
and internet connec�on

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Lens
• A lens is an op�cal device with curved surfaces. A
lens alters the path of light rays that pass through
it by refrac�on.
Convex Lens

Used in Simple Microscope, Compound

Microscope, Telescope.

Concave Lens
Used in binoculars and
flashlight

Simple Microscope

• If the direc�on of a light ray is reversed, it will follow exactly the same path backward. This is
called the principle of reversibility of light.

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UNIT 6: BIOLOGICAL PROCESS IN HUMAN BODY

Diges�on
• The process by which the complex organic compounds are converted into simple organic
products to be absorbed into the human body is called diges�on.

Diges�on
Mechanical Diges�on Chemical Diges�on
Physical nature of the food is altered Broken down into simple molecules by the
ac�on of enzymes
Ex: Breaking down of food into small pieces
by teeth in the mouth Ex: Starch is converted to maltose by Ptyalin

• Func�ons that take place in the diges�ve system

o Diges�on of Food
o Absorp�on of end products
o Removal of undigested materials
Diges�on in the buccal cavity
 The tongue aids in taste, mixing food with saliva, and
swallowing.
 Three salivary glands secrete saliva containing salivary
amylase (ptyalin).
 Salivary amylase begins carbohydrate diges�on in the
mouth: Starch → Maltose.
 Digested food forms a bolus and is pushed to the
pharynx. (Common area for diges�ve and respiratory system)
 The epiglo�s, prevents food from entering the trachea
and directs it into the esophagus.
 Failure of the epiglo�s to func�on properly can lead to choking and poten�ally death.
 Food (bolus) is moved through the esophagus by peristalsis movement: alterna�ve
contrac�ons and relaxa�ons of the esophageal muscles.
 Peristalsis movement propels the bolus towards the stomach.
Diges�on in the stomach
 The stomach is where food is further broken down and mixed into a semi-liquid mixture called
chyme.
 Gastric juice, secreted in the stomach, contains hydrochloric acid (HCl) and pepsin.
 HCl ac�vates pepsin, which begins protein diges�on into polypep�des.
 Renin, present in infants, helps coagulate milk.
 Food remains in the stomach for about three hours.
 Chyme (containing par�ally digested proteins, digested and undigested carbohydrates,
undigested lipids, water, minerals, and vitamins) is released into the duodenum (the first part
of the small intes�ne) gradually.

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Diges�on in small intes�ne
 Most chemical diges�on occurs here.
 7m long; first part (duodenum) is C-shaped.
 Pancrea�c juice (trypsin, amylase, lipase) and bile enter the duodenum.
 Bile (produced in liver, stored in gallbladder) emulsifies fats (breaks them into smaller
droplets).
 Intes�nal juice (maltase, sucrase, lactase, pep�dases) completes diges�on.
 Mucus protects intes�nal lining and aids food passage.

 End products of diges�on:

o Carbohydrates → Monosaccharides (Glucose, Fructose, Galactose)
o Proteins → Amino acids
o Lipids → Faty acids + Glycerol
 Structure of Small Intes�ne
o Long tube (7m)
o Circular folds in inner wall
o Villi (finger-like projec�ons) on circular folds
o Microvilli on villi
o Highly vascularized
 Absorp�on in Small Intes�ne
 Diges�ve end products (amino acids, vitamins, minerals, monosaccharides, faty acids, glycerol)
are absorbed through villi and enter into blood capillaries.
 Faty acids and glycerol enter lacteals (lympha�c vessels).
 Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver.
Processes in the Large Intes�ne
 1.5m long, starts at cecum, ends at anus
 Main func�on is to absorb water from mater received from ileum.
 Stores Faecal mater.
 Appendix: small, blind-ended tube at the start of the cecum; may become infected
(appendici�s)
 Diges�ve tract is prone to infec�ons due to constant exposure to external materials.

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The diseases associated with diges�ve system
Gastri�s:
 Inflamma�on of the stomach's inner lining (mucosa).
 Commonly known as acidity.
 Symptoms: Acid regurgita�on, burning sensa�on, stomach pain.
 Causes:
o Skipping meals, Acidic/spicy food, Excessive smoking/alcohol
Cons�pa�on:
 Difficulty in defeca�on due to hardened stool.
 Caused by excessive water absorp�on in the large intes�ne.
 Reasons:
o Low dietary fiber intake, Insufficient water intake, Postponing defeca�on
Typhoid:
 Bacterial infec�on (transmited via contaminated food/water, fecal mater, flies).
 Entry through mouth (consump�on, swimming/bathing in contaminated water).
 Symptoms: Pain in limbs, headache, ini�al cons�pa�on, coated tongue, later stomachache.
 Preven�on: Vaccina�on.
Diarrhoea:
 Caused by viral, bacterial, or parasi�c infec�ons (transmited via fecal mater).
 Main symptom: Liquid stool.
 Impaired water absorp�on in the large intes�ne.
 Risk of dehydra�on (poten�ally fatal).
 Treatment: Increased fluid intake, medical consulta�on.
General Preven�on of Diges�ve Disorders:
 Consume boiled drinking water.
 Avoid street food.
 Wash hands with soap a�er using the toilet.

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Respira�on
• Respira�on is the oxida�on of glucose to produce energy.
• Respira�on occurs in three steps
o Gas exchange between external environment and lungs
o Gas exchange in alveoli
o Cellular respira�on
• Func�ons of the Nasal Cavity
o Moisturizes inhaled air
o Warms inhaled air
o Filters inhaled air
Mechanics of Breathing
Inspira�on:
 Diaphragm and Intercostal muscles contracts.
 Diaphragm move downwards.
 Ribs move upward.
 Sternum moves forward.
 Thoracic cavity volume increases.
 Air is drawn into the lungs
Expira�on:
 Diaphragm and Intercostal muscles relax.
 Diaphragm move upwards.
 Ribs move downward.
 Sternum moves backward.
 Thoracic cavity volume decreases.
 Air is from lungs goes out to the environment
Gas Exchange in Alveoli:
 Inhaled air reaches alveoli via nasal cavity  trachea  bronchi  bronchioles.
 Oxygen (O₂) concentra�on in alveoli is higher than in surrounding blood capillaries. O₂ diffuses
from alveoli into blood capillaries.
 Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water vapor concentra�on is higher in blood capillaries than in
alveoli. CO₂ and water vapor diffuse from blood capillaries into alveoli to be exhaled.
 Gas exchange occurs by diffusion.
 Alveoli walls are the respiratory surface in humans.
Adapta�ons of Respiratory Surfaces for Efficient Gas Exchange:
 Moist and permeable: Allows gases to dissolve and pass through.
 Thin: Short diffusion distance for efficient gas exchange.
 Large surface area: Allows for exchange of large volumes of gas.
 Highly vascularized: Dense network of blood capillaries for efficient transport of gases to and
from the rest of the body.

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Cellular Respira�on (General):
 Oxygen from alveoli reacts with glucose in cells.
 Process of oxidizing food (glucose) to release energy for cellular ac�vi�es.
Word Equa�on:
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

Chemical Equa�on:
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy
Types of Respira�on:
 Aerobic Respira�on: Occurs in the presence of oxygen.
 Anaerobic Respira�on: Occurs without oxygen.
o Alcohol Fermenta�on (Plants/Yeast): Glucose → Carbon dioxide + Ethyl alcohol + Energy
o Lac�c Acid Fermenta�on (Animals/Humans): Glucose → Lac�c acid + Energy (causes
muscle pain/cramps during intense ac�vity)
• Aerobic respira�on produces more energy than anaerobic respira�on (due to complete glucose
breakdown).
• Energy is stored as chemical energy in ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).
• Func�ons of ATP:
o Energy storage
o Energy release
o Energy carrier
Diseases associated with respiratory system
Common Cold:
 Caused by a virus
 Preven�on: Avoid exposure to dust and mist
Pneumonia:
 Caused by bacteria or viruses
 Inflamma�on of the lungs
 Symptoms: Cough, fever, difficulty breathing
Asthma:
 Inflamma�on of the airways
 Triggers: Dust, pollen, allergens
Bronchi�s:
 Inflamma�on of the bronchial tubes
 Caused by viral or bacterial infec�ons
Tuberculosis:
 Caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
 Affects lungs, but can spread to other organs

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Diseases associated with smoking:
 Smoking:
o Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin, reducing oxygen supply to �ssues.
o Nico�ne increases heart rate and blood pressure.
o Tar damages lung �ssues.
o Increases risk of lung cancer, bronchi�s, emphysema, heart disease, and other health
problems.
 Passive Smoking:
o Exposure to secondhand smoke can also cause health issues.
Asbestosis:
 Caused by inhala�on of asbestos fibers
 Damages lung �ssue and can lead to lung cancer.
Silicosis: Caused by inhala�on of silica dust (found in mining and construc�on).
Anthracosis: Caused by inhala�on of coal dust.

Excre�on
• Summa�on of the bio chemical reac�ons that take place in the living body is known as
metabolism.
• The waste products that are formed during metabolism are known as excretory materials.
• Removal of excretory products produced during metabolism from the body is known as
excre�on.
• Why is faecal mater not an excretory product?
o Faeces is the undigested materials of
the diges�on process. Diges�on of food
is not a bio chemical reac�on that takes place in the cells. So faeces is not considered as
an excretory material. The bile pigments that is released with faeces is an excretory
substance.
Urinary System

• Func�on: Nitrogenous waste excre�on.

• Main organ: Kidney.
Process of Urine Forma�on and Excre�on:
 Waste materials in blood enter the
kidneys via renal arteries.
 Filtra�on occurs within the kidneys, producing urine.
 Urine is transported through the ureters to the urinary bladder.
 Urine is temporarily stored in the urinary bladder.
 Urine is released from the body through the urethra.
Nephron is the structural and func�onal unit of the kidney. Microscopic;
approximately one million nephrons per kidney.

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Urine Forma�on (3 Main Processes):
Ultrafiltra�on:
 Occurs in the glomerulus (capillary network in Bowman's capsule).
 High blood pressure forces fluid and small molecules (water, glucose, amino acids, ions, urea)
from the blood into Bowman's capsule, forming glomerular filtrate.
 Large molecules (proteins, blood cells) remain in the blood.
 Glomerular filtrate composi�on is similar to blood plasma.
Selec�ve Reabsorp�on:
 Occurs as glomerular filtrate moves through the nephron tubules.
 Most water (90%), all glucose, amino acids, some salts, and small
amounts of urea, uric acid, and drugs are reabsorbed back into the
blood.
 Changes the composi�on of the filtrate.
 In healthy adults, 100% of glucose is reabsorbed. In diabetes, this process is impaired, and
glucose is lost in urine.
Secre�on:
 Some substances from the blood capillaries surrounding the nephron are ac�vely transported
into the nephron tubules.
 Examples: Hydrogen ions (H⁺), potassium ions (K⁺), ammonium ions (NH₄⁺), crea�nine, drugs,
vitamin B.
Urine Composi�on (Healthy Person):
 Water: ~96%, Salts: ~2%, Urea: ~2%, Uric acid: Trace amounts, Crea�nine: Trace amounts
Urine Removal:
 Urine flows from collec�ng ducts to the renal pelvis.
 From the renal pelvis, urine travels through the ureters to the bladder for temporary storage.
 Urine is expelled from the body through the urethra during urina�on.
Diseases associated with excretory system
Renal Failure:
 Kidneys lose their filtering ability (weakened nephron func�on).
 Acute renal failure can occur within 8-14 days if untreated.
 Treatment: Dialysis (blood filtra�on by machine), Kidney transplant (if both kidneys fail).
Nephri�s:
 Inflamma�on/swelling of the kidneys.
Calculi (Kidney and Bladder Stones):
 Crystalliza�on of calcium oxalate in kidneys or bladder.
 Blockage of ureters causes severe pain.
 Lithotripsy (crushing stones with laser rays or ultrasound waves).

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Blood Circula�on
• Consist of three components;
o Blood
o Blood Vessels
o Heart
Blood Components:
• Plasma (55%):
o Liquid matrix of blood.
o Composed of:
 Water (92% of plasma):.
 Proteins (Albumins, Globulins, Fibrinogen): Albumins maintain osmotic pressure;
Globulins are involved in immunity; Fibrinogen is essential for blood clotting.
 Nutrients (Glucose, Amino acids, Faty acids, Glycerol): Provide energy and building
blocks for cells.
 Ions (Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl⁻, PO₄³⁻, HCO₃⁻): Maintain pH, osmotic balance, and
nerve/muscle function.
 Nitrogenous wastes (Urea, Uric acid, Crea�nine): Byproducts of metabolism.
 Gases (O₂, CO₂): Involved in respiration.
 Hormones and enzymes: Regulate various bodily func�ons.
• Corpuscles (45%):
o Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes):
 Most abundant blood cells.
 Biconcave disc shape (increases surface area for gas exchange).
 Lack a nucleus (more space for hemoglobin).
 Contain hemoglobin (iron-containing protein that binds oxygen).
 Transport oxygen from lungs to �ssues and some carbon dioxide from �ssues to
lungs.
 Lifespan: 120 days.
 Formed in red bone marrow. Destroyed in Spleen
o White Blood Cells (Leukocytes):
 Larger than RBCs, but much fewer in number.
 Have a nucleus.
 Crucial for immune defense.
 Lifespan: 13-20 days.
 Protect the body against infec�ous par�cles by phagocytosis and an�body produc�on.
 Types:
• Granulocytes: Have granules in their cytoplasm.
o Neutrophils (50-70%)
o Eosinophils (1-4%)
o Basophils (0-1%)
• Non-granulocytes: Lack prominent granules.
o Lymphocytes (20-40%)
o Monocytes (2-8%)

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 o Platelets (Thrombocytes):
 Cell fragments (not whole cells).
 Involved in blood clo�ng (hemostasis).
 Formed in bone marrow.
 Lifespan: 5-7 days.
Func�ons of Blood
• Transporta�on of materials
• Protect body against pathogenic microbes by phagocytosis and by producing an�bodies.
• Maintenance of chemical coordina�on and homeostasis among �ssues and organs
Blood Circula�on:
 Double Circula�on: Blood passes through the heart twice in one complete circuit of the body.
 Pulmonary Circula�on: Blood flow between the heart and lungs (for gas exchange).
 Systemic Circula�on: Blood flow between the heart and the rest of the body.
 Arteries: Carries oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery, which carries deoxygenated
blood to lungs).
 Veins: Carries deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary veins, which carry oxygenated blood
from lungs to the heart).
Heart:
 Chambers:
o Right Atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from
the body.
o Right Ventricle: Pumps deoxygenated blood to
the lungs (pulmonary artery).
o Le� Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs (pulmonary veins).
o Le� Ventricle: Pumps oxygenated blood to the body (aorta).
 Valves: Prevent backflow of blood.
o Tricuspid valve (between right atrium and ventricle).
o Bicuspid (mitral) valve (between le� atrium and ventricle).
o Semilunar valves (in arteries leaving the ventricles).
Heartbeat and Cardiac Cycle:
 Heartbeat: Contrac�ons and relaxa�ons of the heart muscle.
 Cardiac Cycle: One complete heartbeat (from one beat to the next).
o Diastole: Atrial contrac�on (0.1 seconds).
o Systole: Ventricular contrac�on (0.3 seconds).
o Intervening: Atria and ventricles relax (0.4 seconds).
 Heart Sounds: "Lub-dub" sounds are caused by valve closures.
o "Lub": Bicuspid and tricuspid valves closing.
o "Dub": Semilunar valves closing.

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Electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG):
 Records electrical ac�vity of the heart.
 Used to diagnose heart condi�ons.
 Shows different phases of the cardiac cycle.
Blood Pressure:
 Force exerted by blood against artery walls.
 Measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg).
Types of Blood Pressure:
 Systolic Blood Pressure: Pressure when the heart contracts and pushes blood out (normal:
110-120 mmHg).
 Diastolic Blood Pressure: Pressure when the heart relaxes between beats (normal: 70-80
mmHg).
Normal Res�ng Blood Pressure:
 Expressed as systolic/diastolic (e.g., 120/80 mmHg).
Factors Affec�ng Blood Pressure:
 Age, Sex, Stress, Certain diseases
Lympha�c System:

 Network of vessels and nodes that collect excess �ssue fluid (lymph)
from the body �ssues.
 Lymph is then returned to the bloodstream through the thoracic duct
and right lympha�c duct.
 The lympha�c system also helps to fight infec�on by filtering lymph through lymph nodes,
which contain white blood cells that destroy pathogens.
 Tissue fluid  Excess fluid that leaks out of blood capillaries into the �ssues.
 Lympha�c vessels  Collect �ssue fluid and return it to the bloodstream.
 Lymph nodes  Filter lymph and contain white blood cells (lymphocytes) to fight infec�on.
Func�ons:
 Destruc�on of infec�ous organisms like bateria
 Return excess �ssue fluid to the bloodstream.
 Maintain fluid balance in the body.
 Fight infec�on.
Diseases associated with blood circulatory system
Atherosclerosis:
 Narrows artery lumen (reducing blood flow).
 Can lead to angina (chest pain) or heart failure (if coronary arteries are blocked)
Hypertension (High Blood Pressure):
 Narrowed arteries (due to cholesterol deposits) require the heart to pump harder.
 Increased pressure on artery walls.

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Hypotension (Low Blood Pressure):
 Blood pressure lower than normal.
Thrombosis (Blood Clots):
 Blood clot blocks a blood vessel.
o If in the brain: Paralysis.
o If in coronary artery: Coronary thrombosis (heart atack).
 Preven�on/Control (star�ng from childhood):
o Avoid smoking and alcohol.
o Reduce salt intake.
o Regular exercise.
General Note: Family history of heart atacks, hypertension, or diabetes increases risk.

Coordina�on and homeostasis

 Irritability: Ability of living beings to respond to s�muli (internal or external).
 Coordina�on: Adapta�on of the body to changes in the environment.
 S�mulus: A detectable change in the external or internal environment.
 Response: Reac�on to a s�mulus.
 Sensory Organs (Receptors)  Detect s�muli
 Effectors  Carry out responses
Example (Thorn Prick):
Stimulus: Touch of the thorn.
Receptor: Skin.
Response: Taking the foot away.
Effector: Muscles of the foot.

Nervous Coordina�on:
 Uses electrochemical impulses transmited through nerves.
 Maintains coordina�on between receptors and effectors.
 Involves the nervous system.
 Neuron  Structural unit of the nervous system.
Types:
 Sensory neurons
 Motor neurons
 Interneurons
Nervous System Components:
Central Nervous System (CNS):
 Brain
o Cerebrum
o Cerebellum
o Medulla oblongata
 Spinal cord

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
 Cranial nerves (12 pairs)
 Spinal nerves (31 pairs)
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain:
 Protected by the cranium (skull).
 Covered by three layers of meninges.
 Contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within cavi�es and between meninges.
 CSF func�ons:
o Absorbs shocks and jerks.
o Protects against microbial infec�ons and desicca�on
(drying out).
o Protects from temperature fluctua�ons.
 Composed of grey mater (cell bodies) on the periphery and white mater (nerve fibers with
myelin sheaths) in the interior.
 Main parts:
o Cerebrum:
 Largest part, divided into two hemispheres.
 Cortex (outer layer) is highly convoluted (increases
surface area).
 Le� hemisphere controls the right side of the body,
and vice versa.
 Func�ons:
• Percep�on and storage of sensory informa�on.
• Sensory percep�on (vision, taste, smell, hearing, pain, temperature).
• Higher mental func�ons (learning, intelligence, thinking).
• Control of voluntary muscle contrac�ons.
o Cerebellum:
 Located below the cerebrum.
 Two hemispheres; grey mater outer layer, white mater inner layer.
 Func�ons:
• Body balance.
• Control of voluntary muscle ac�vity.
• Coordina�on of body movements.
o Medulla Oblongata:
 Anterior to the cerebellum.
 Controls vital life processes:
• Heart rate, Breathing rate.
• Controls reflex ac�ons, Involuntary ac�ons.

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Spinal Cord:
 Tubular structure extending from the medulla oblongata
through the vertebral column.
 White mater on the periphery, grey mater in the interior.
 Spinal nerves originate symmetrically on either side.
Reflex Arc:
 Func�onal unit of the nervous system for coordina�on
between receptors and effectors.
 Involves three types of neurons:
o Sensory neuron (carries impulse from receptor to
CNS).
o Interneuron (connects sensory and motor neurons within the CNS).
o Motor neuron (carries impulse from CNS to effector).
Reflex Ac�on:
 Sudden, involuntary response to a s�mulus.
 Structural and func�onal unit of the nervous system that maintains the coordina�on is called
the reflex arc.
 Occurs without conscious brain involvement.
 Types:
o Spinal reflexes (processed in the spinal cord):
 Moving hand away from a hot surface.
 Li�ing leg when stepping on a thorn.
o Cranial reflexes (processed in the brain):
 Sneezing.
 Saliva�on.
 Blinking.
Autonomic Nervous System

• The autonomic nervous system is composed of two parts

 Sympathe�c nervous system
 Parasympathe�c nervous system
• The sympathe�c and parasympathe�c
nervous systems cause opposite
effects. The sympathe�c system
ac�vates when a person is at
emergency. It causes fight or flight
effects.

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Chemical Coordina�on
 Uses hormones secreted by endocrine (ductless) glands.
 Hormones are transported through the bloodstream.
Features of Hormones:
 Organic compounds.
 Transported through blood.
 Produced in one loca�on, act in another.
 S�mulate specific target organs or cells.
The endocrine gland on human body

Homeostasis
 Maintenance of a constant internal environment.
 Internal environment includes �ssue fluid, blood plasma, and lymph.
 Stable internal environment is crucial for cellular ac�vi�es.
 Maintained by feedback mechanisms.
Factors Regulated by Homeostasis:
 Blood glucose level
 Body temperature
 Water balance

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Regula�on of Blood Glucose Level
 Normal blood glucose: 80-120 mg/100 ml.
 High blood glucose:
o Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans in pancreas release insulin.
o Insulin converts glucose to glycogen (stored in the liver).
o Excess glucose is converted to fat (stored in adipose �ssue).
 Low blood glucose:
o Alpha cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas release glucagon.
o Glucagon converts glycogen (in the liver) back to glucose.
 Dysfunc�on of beta cells or insulin secre�on causes diabetes.
Regula�on of Body Temperature
 Humans are homeothermic (maintain constant body temperature).
 Normal body temperature: 37°C (can vary from 36°C to 37.5°C).
 Thermoregulatory center: Hypothalamus (in the brain).
 Low environmental temperature:
o Reduced blood supply to skin (vasoconstric�on).
o Reduced sweat produc�on.
o Hair erec�on (traps insula�ng air).
o Shivering (generates heat).
 High environmental temperature:
o Increased blood supply to skin (vasodila�on).
o Increased sweat produc�on (evapora�ve cooling).
Regula�on of Water Balance
 Low blood water level:
o Pituitary gland releases ADH (An�diure�c hormone).
o ADH increases water reabsorp�on in the kidneys (reducing urine output).
 High blood water level:
o Water reabsorp�on in kidneys decreases (increasing urine output).

UNIT 7: ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

• A compound that releases hydrogen ions (H⁺) in an aqueous (water) solu�on.

Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) → H⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq)
Types of Acids

• Strong Acids: Completely ionize in water (all molecules dissociate into H⁺ ions and nega�ve
ions).
Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), Nitric acid (HNO₃)
• Weak Acids: Par�ally ionize in water (only some molecules dissociate into H⁺ ions and nega�ve
ions; many remain as undissociated molecules).
Examples: Ace�c acid (CH₃COOH), Carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), Phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄)

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Concentrated and Dilute Acids
• Concentrated acids: High concentra�on of acid in solu�on.
• Dilute acids: Low concentra�on of acid in solu�on (prepared by mixing concentrated acids with
water).
Proper�es of Acids
 Corrosive Nature: Concentrated acids can be corrosive. They can damage skin, metals, and
other materials.
 Sour Taste: Acids have a sour taste (e.g., lemon juice).
 Dilute acids react with metals above hydrogen in the reac�vity series to produce salt and
hydrogen gas. (e.g., Mg + 2HCl → MgCl₂ + H₂)
 Acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates to produce salt, water, and carbon dioxide gas.
(e.g., CaCO₃ + 2HCl → CaCl₂ + H₂O + CO₂)
 Acids react with bases to produce salt and water (neutraliza�on reac�on). (e.g., H₂SO₄ +
2NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O)
 Acids turn blue litmus paper red.
Uses of Acids
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
 Removal of rust from steel.
 Gela�n produc�on in food technology.
Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄)
 Produc�on of fer�lizers (ammonium sulfate, triple superphosphate).
 Batery acid (diluted sulfuric acid).
 Produc�on of paints, plas�cs, and detergents.
Ace�c Acid (CH₃COOH)
 Coagula�on of rubber latex.
 Produc�on of photographic films.
 Paper industry.

• A compound that increases the hydroxide ion (OH⁻) concentra�on in an aqueous solu�on.
Example: NaOH(aq) → Na⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq)
Types of Bases

• Strong Bases: Completely ionize in water.

Examples: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Potassium hydroxide (KOH)

• Weak Bases: Par�ally ionize in water.

Example: Ammonia solu�on (NH₄OH)
Proper�es of Bases
 Slimy/soapy texture.
 React with acids to form salts and water (neutraliza�on). Example: 2NaOH + H₂SO₄ → Na₂SO₄
+ 2H₂O

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  Turn red litmus paper blue.
 Bases that readily dissolve in water (e.g., NaOH, KOH, NH₄OH).
Uses of Some Bases
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
 Soap, paper, ar�ficial silk, and paint produc�on.
 Laboratory use (strong base).
 Petroleum refining.
Magnesium Hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂)
 Milk of magnesia (antacid for stomach acidity/gastri�s).
 Molasses purifica�on in the sugar industry.
Iden�fica�on of acids and bases with indicators

Indicator Acid Indica�on Base Indica�on Neutral Indica�on

Litmus Red Blue No change
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Colourless
Methyl Orange Red Yellow Yellow
pH Paper (1 – 6) Red, Orange, Yellow (8 – 14) Blue, Indigo, Violet (7) Green

Salt
• A compound formed by the reac�on between an acid and a base (neutraliza�on).
Examples:
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H₂O (Sodium chloride)
KOH + HCl → KCl + H₂O (Potassium chloride)
Mg(OH)₂ + 2HNO₃ → Mg(NO₃)₂ + 2H₂O (Magnesium nitrate)

• Salts can have acidic, basic, or neutral proper�es depending on the strength of the reac�ng acid
and base.
• Strong acid + strong base → Neutral salt (e.g., NaCl)
Proper�es of Salts
 Crystalline solids.
 Most are soluble in water.
 Generally have high mel�ng and boiling points.
Uses of Sodium Chloride (NaCl - Common Salt)
 Food flavoring and preserva�on.
 Produc�on of chemicals (chlorine, hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate).
 Soap making.
 Tanning.
Uses of Copper Sulphate
 Used as a fungicide in agriculture
 Used in electropla�ng
 Used in paint industry

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Neutraliza�on
 Reac�on between an acid and a base.
 Products: Salt and water.
 H⁺ ions from the acid combine with OH⁻ ions from the base to form water (H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O).
 Acidic and basic proper�es of the reactants disappear.
Applica�ons of Neutraliza�on
 Stomach Acidity: Antacids (weak bases like milk of magnesia) neutralize excess stomach acid.
 Soil Acidity: Basic substances (ash, quicklime/calcium oxide) are added to acidic soil.
 Bee S�ngs: Bee venom is acidic; baking soda (NaHCO₃) or calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) (weak
bases) are applied for relief.
 Wasp S�ngs: Wasp venom is basic; weak acids like lime juice or vinegar are applied for relief.

UNIT 8: HEAT CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Heat Changes
Exothermic Reac�on Endothermic Reac�on
Release heat during a chemical reac�on Absorp�on of heat during a chemical reac�on

Energy level diagram

Energy level diagram

1. All decomposi�on reac�ons

1. Neutraliza�on reac�on CaCO3  CaO + CO2
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O 2. Photosynthesis
2. Respira�on 3. Glucose + H2O
3. Quicklime + Water 4. Urea + H2O
CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
4. Metal + Acid
Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2
5. Combus�on of Fossil fuels

When conduc�ng experiments related to these we assume that

 There is no heat loss to environment
 Specific heat capacity of water = Specific heat capacity of the solu�on
 Density of water = Density of solu�on
Heat change Formula

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 × 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 × 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

𝑄𝑄 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Unit: Joules (J)

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UNIT 9: HEAT

• Temperature is measure of the mean kine�c energy possessed by the par�cles that form an
object.
• Thermometers are devices used for measuring temperature. Galileo Galilei invented the first
thermometer around 1600 A.D.
Types of Thermometers
Glass-mercury thermometer
 Contains mercury in a glass bulb connected to a narrow tube.
 Mercury expands and rises in the tube with increasing temperature.
 Mercury has uniform expansion, good thermal conduc�vity, and a wide liquid range (-39 °C to
357 °C).
 Use is declining due to mercury's toxicity.
Glass-alcohol thermometer
 Similar construc�on to glass-mercury thermometer but uses ethanol instead.
 Suitable for low temperatures (ethanol mel�ng point: -115 °C).
Digital thermometer
 Provides direct temperature readings.
 Uses temperature-dependent electrical proper�es like resistance.
Temperature Scales
Celsius scale
 Fixed points: 0 °C (ice mel�ng) and 100 °C (water boiling) under one atmosphere pressure.
 100 divisions between fixed points.
Fahrenheit scale
 Fixed points: 32 °F (ice mel�ng) and 212 °F (water boiling).
 180 divisions between fixed points.
Kelvin scale
 Based on absolute zero temperature.
 Absolute zero temperature (Temperature is zero resul�ng the kine�c energy also to be zero)
-273.15 °C (0 K). (No mean kine�c difference)
 1 K temperature difference equals 1 °C difference.
 Ice mel�ng: 273.15 K; water boiling: 373.15 K.
 Interna�onal unit for temperature: Kelvin (K).
• The energy transfer from one object to another as a result of the temperature difference
exis�ng between the two objects is known as the heat.
• Heat transfer from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. Then the
temperature of body at lower temperature increases and higher temperature decreases.
• The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of an object by one unit is known as
the heat capacity of the object. (SI Unit: Joules per Kelvin – JK-1). Can use Joules per Celsius too.

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• The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1kg of a given substance by one
unit is known as the specific heat capacity. Unit: Joules per kilogram per Kelvin – J kg-1 K-1
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 × 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐶𝐶 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• Mel�ng point is the temperature at which a solid is converted to
liquid substance. Freezing point is the temperature at which a
liquid substance is converted to solid substance. Boiling point is the
temperature at which a liquid substance is converted to gaseous
substance.
• The heat absorbed by the system without changing its temperature Temperature vs Time Graph for water
while the change of state is taking place is known as latent heat.
• The increase in dimensions of a substance subjected to an
increase in temperature is known as thermal expansion.
o Solids  Bimetallic strip, Loosely fi�ng of wires and
cables between posts, Gap between railway tracks.
o Liquid  Glass-mercury thermometer.
• Thermal equilibrium is when two objects are in contact, have
the same temp, there is no net heat transfer between them.
• Heat passing from one place to another is known as heat transfer.
o Conduc�on  Heat transfer through a material by direct contact.
o Convec�on  Transfer of heat due to the conven�onal current in liquid or gas.
 When heat is supplied density of a par�cle reduces, there it moves higher.
 Sea Breeze (Day�me)
• Land heats up faster than the sea during the day.
• Air above the land warms, becomes less dense, and rises (convec�on).
• This creates a low-pressure area over the land.
• Cooler, denser air from the sea flows in to replace the rising warm air.
• This flow of air from the sea to the land is called a sea breeze.
 Land Breeze (Nigh�me)
• Land cools down faster than the sea at night.
• The sea retains heat longer, so the air above it is warmer.
• Warmer air above the sea rises, crea�ng a low-pressure area over the sea.
• Cooler, denser air from the land flows out to replace the rising warm air over
the sea.
• This flow of air from the land to the sea is called a land breeze.
o Radia�on  Propaga�on of heat in the form at electromagne�c radia�on without aid of
mater
 Dark surfaces absorb more heat than light objects, rough surfaces absorb more
heat than smooth surfaces. Reflec�on of thermal radia�on is high in shining
areas.
 Uses: Controlling the warming up of body(white uniform), Maintains body
temperature (wearing dark clothes in cold season).

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UNIT 10: POWER AND ENERGY OF ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES

• Power is the work done in a unit �me or energy consumed in a unit �me
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 × 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 × 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 × 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 × 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

A Distribu�on Wire Supply current to all houses in an area

B Supply Cable Supply current to a house
C Overload circuit breaker/ Prevent electrical damage by disconnec�ng power if current
Service fuse exceeds 40A limit.
In older homes, you might find fuses instead of circuit breakers.
D Electric meter Records the amount of electricity consumed in kilowat-hours
(kWh)
E Isolator(Main switch/fuse) Disconnect both the live and neutral wire if a current more
than 30A is sent.
F Residual current circuit Protects against electrical shocks by detec�ng leakage currents
breaker (Tripped switch) to the ground.
G Miniature circuit breaker If current more than the maximum goes through it, it
disconnects.
Socket  13A | Bulbs  6A
H Switches Allows turning off each equipment separately
I Plug Socket Provide a safe and convenient connec�on point for electrical
devices to receive power.
C & D Belong to the Service Provider

• Although energy is usually measure

in Joules. SI Unit of measuring
electricity is kWh

𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾

𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 = × 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

For a month  x30

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UNIT 11: ELECTRONICS

• The ability of a material to conduct electricity depends on the movement of electrons within its
structure.
Electrical Conductors
• Materials that allow electricity to flow freely through them.
Ex: copper, aluminum, iron, and mixed materials like brass.
• Electrons in these materials are loosely bound to the nucleus and can move easily.
Electrical Insulators
• Materials that do not allow electricity to flow through them.
Ex: ebonite, polythene, plas�c, and dry wood.
• Electrons in these materials are �ghtly bound to the nucleus and cannot move freely.

Semiconductors
• Materials that conduct electricity under specific condi�ons.
Ex: silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge).
• Have a moderate number of free electrons, allowing them to conduct electricity to a limited
extent.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
 These are pure semiconductors like silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) in their crystalline form.
 They have a very low number of free charge carriers (electrons and holes) at room
temperature.
Effect of Temperature on Conduc�vity
 Temperature rise in conductors cause a decrease in conduc�vity (increase in resis�vity).
 Temperature rise in semiconductors causes an increase in conduc�vity (decrease in
resis�vity)
Extrinsic Semiconductors

• Doping: Intrinsic semiconductors (like silicon and germanium) can be "doped" by adding a small
amount of impurity atoms (from group III or group V of the periodic table) to their crystal
structure. Doping increases the conduc�vity of semiconductors.
n-type Semiconductors(electrons as majority carriers)
 When an intrinsic semiconductor (like silicon) is doped with a group V element (like
phosphorus or arsenic), it becomes an n-type semiconductor.
 Group V elements have five valence electrons.
 When they replace a silicon atom in the crystal la�ce, four of their electrons form covalent
bonds with the neighboring silicon atoms, while the
fi�h electron is free to move within the crystal.
 These free electrons act as majority charge carriers,
hence the name "n-type" (for nega�ve).

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p-type Semiconductors(holes as majority carriers)
 When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a
group III element (like boron or aluminum), it becomes
a p-type semiconductor.
 Group III elements have three valence electrons.
 When they replace a silicon atom, they form only three
covalent bonds with the neighboring silicon atoms,
leaving a "hole" or a vacancy where an electron is missing.
 These holes act as majority charge carriers, hence the name "p-type" (for posi�ve).

p-n Junc�on
 A p-n junc�on is formed when a p-type semiconductor is brought into contact with an n-
type semiconductor.
 When the p-n junc�on is formed, free electrons from the n-region diffuse across the junc�on
into the p-region. Similarly, holes from the p-region diffuse into the n-region.
 As electrons and holes meet, they recombine, neutralizing each other. This recombina�on
process occurs near the junc�on interface.
 The region around the junc�on, where the majority charge carriers (electrons in n-type and
holes in p-type) have recombined, becomes depleted of mobile charge carriers. This region
is called the deple�on region. This region has no charge.
 The deple�on region develops a net posi�ve charge on the n-side and a net nega�ve charge
on the p-side. This electric field creates a poten�al barrier that prevents further diffusion of
majority carriers.
 A p-n junc�on is a fundamental building block of many electronic devices like diodes,
transistors, and integrated circuits.

Biasing a p-n Junc�on

 Biasing a p-n junc�on involves applying an external voltage across it.
Forward Biasing Reverse Biasing

The nega�ve
terminal of the
The posi�ve external source is connected to the p-type
terminal of the external source is connected to
semiconductor (anode), and the posi�ve
the p-type semiconductor (anode), and the
terminal is connected to the n-type
nega�ve terminal is connected to the n-type
semiconductor (cathode) semiconductor (cathode).

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 This reduces the width of the deple�on region. This widens the width of the deple�on region.

Allows current flow through the p-n junc�on. Restricts current flow through the p-n junc�on

p-n Junc�on Diode

 An electronic component that consists of a p-n junc�on. It allows current to flow in only one
direc�on (forward bias).

 When the anode (A) is connected to the posi�ve terminal of a voltage source and the
cathode (K) is connected to the nega�ve terminal, the diode is forward biased.
 It acts as a one-way valve for electric current, allowing current to flow in only one direc�on.
Rec�fica�on
 An alterna�ng current is one that changes its direc�on of flow periodically.
 A direct current flows only in one direc�on.
 The process of conver�ng an alterna�ng current (AC) into a direct current (DC) is called
rec�fica�on.
 Diodes play a vital role in achieving this conversion.

Half wave rec�fica�on Full wave rec�fica�on

One diode is used Four diodes are used

Hald cycle of AC is converted to DC Full cycle of AC is converted to DC

Smoothing
 Reducing the varia�on in the rec�fied current.
 A large capacitor is connected parallel to
output terminal.

LED
 Made up of Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
 The type of diode which emit light when current
passes through it.
Solar Cells
 When sunlight is incident on these silicon p-n junc�ons, it creates a small electromo�ve
force (EMF).
 Collec�on of solar cells create a solar panel

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Transistors
 Transistors are semiconductor devices made by connec�ng three semiconductor regions (p
and n-type) together.
 There are two main types: npn and pnp transistors.
Components
 Emiter (E): Emits the majority charge carriers
(electrons in npn, holes in pnp).
 Collector (C): Collects the majority charge carriers
emited by the emiter.
 Base (B): Controls the flow of charge carriers
between the emiter and collector.
Biasing
 Emiter – Base should be forward bias
 Base – Collector should be reverse bias
 Base & Collector should have same terminal
Applica�ons
 Current Amplifier
 Signal Amplifier
 As a switch

UNIT 12: ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Electrochemical Cells
K
• Electrochemical cells are devices that convert chemical energy into electrical energy
Na
through redox(oxida�on-reduc�on) reac�ons. Common examples include bateries and
Ca
fuel cells.
Mg
Electroly�c Cell Al
• Electrochemical cells are devices that convert electrical energy into chemical energy. Zn
Fe
Remember Sn
 Elements that are above in the ac�vity series will undergo oxida�on while the Pb
elements that are below in the ac�vity series will undergo reduc�on. Cl-
 Oxida�on is a process by which a species remove electrons, Reduc�on is a process OH-
by which a species accept electrons. SO42-
Ex: Oxidation  Na(s)  Na+(aq) + e | Reduction  2H+ + 2e  H2(g) H
 The electrode which undergoes oxida�on is the anode. The electrode which Cu
undergoes reduc�on is cathode. (if an anode is metal it will always undergo Hg
oxida�on) Ag
 The electrolyte should be a liquid which can conduct electricity. Pt
Au

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 Electrochemical cell Electroly�c cell

Zinc (Zn) is above in ac�vity series. Therefore, it Na+ ion cannot undergo oxida�on as it has
will undergo oxida�on. already removed an electron. Then the next
highest, Cl- undergoes oxida�on.
Oxida�on Half Reac�on / Anodic Reac�on
Zn(s)  2e + Zn2+(aq) Oxida�on Half Reac�on / Anodic Reac�on
2Cl-(aq)  2e + Cl2(g)
Zinc is nega�ve terminal (because it forms
electrons) This occurs near the posi�ve electrode
Zinc is the anode (because it undergoes
oxida�on)
H+ is below in the ac�vity series. Therefore, it H+ is below in the ac�vity series. Therefore, it
will undergo reduc�on. will undergo reduc�on.

Reduc�on Half Reac�on / Cathodic Reac�on Reduc�on Half Reac�on / Cathodic Reac�on
2H+(aq) + 2e  H2(g) 2H+(aq) + 2e  H2(g)

H+ is nega�ve terminal (because it gains This occurs near the nega�ve electrode.
electrons)
H+ is the anode (because it undergoes
reduc�on)
Overall cell Reac�on (Add both reactions) Overall cell Reac�on (Add both reactions)
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2e  2e + Zn2+(aq) + H2(g) 2Cl-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e  2e + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + H2(g) 2Cl-(aq) + 2H+(aq)  Cl2(g) + H2(g)
Observa�on Observa�on
Zn Metal Dissolves Green colored gas bubbles evolved at anode
Colorless gas bubbles evolve near Copper (Cu) Colorless gas bubbles evolved at the cathode

Industrial applica�ons of electrolysis

• Extrac�on of metals
Eg: Extrac�ng aluminum metal from bauxite.
Extrac�ng sodium metal by electrolyzing fused sodium chloride.
Electrolysis Process
 Raw Material: Fused sodium chloride (NaCl)
 Electrodes: Graphite anode and circular steel cathode
 Downs Cell: A special type of electroly�c cell with a
perforated steel diaphragm separa�ng the anode and
cathode.

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Reac�ons
Oxida�on (Anode): 2Cl-(l) → Cl2(g) + 2e
Reduc�on (Cathode): Na+(l) + e → Na(l)
Overall Reac�on: 2Na+(l) + 2Cl-(l) → 2Na(l) + Cl2(g)
Purpose of Diaphragm(Steel Mesh): Prevents the reac�on between chlorine gas and sodium metal
to form sodium chloride again.
Note: The mel�ng point of sodium chloride is lowered by adding calcium chloride.
Uses of Sodium
 Sodium vapor lamps for yellow light emission
 Coolant in nuclear reactors
 Laboratory experiments
Uses of Chlorine
 Water purifica�on (destroys bacteria)
 Bleaching paper, pulp, and cloth
 Hydrochloric acid produc�on
 PVC produc�on
• Metal Refining
• Electropla�ng (coa�ng an object with metal)
 Applying a thin metallic layer on a given surface using electrolysis
Done to improve proper�es like
 Resistance to rus�ng
 Atrac�ve color
 Chemical inertness
 Lustrous nature
Key Components for Electropla�ng
 Cathode: The object to be plated.
 Anode: A plate or rod made of the metal being used for pla�ng.
 Electrolyte: A solu�on of a salt of the metal being used for pla�ng.
Important Considera�ons
Low Concentra�on Electrolyte: A lower concentra�on electrolyte leads to a slower reac�on rate,
resul�ng in a beter quality pla�ng.
Ex: Copper Pla�ng an Iron Spoon
Cathode: Iron spoon
Anode: Copper plate
Electrolyte: Copper sulfate solu�on

Observa�ons
The iron spoon (cathode) gets coated with copper.

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Electrode Reac�ons
Oxida�on  Cu(s)  Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Reduc�on  Cu2+(aq) + 2e  Cu(s)
• Industrial produc�on of Sodium Hydroxide. (diaphragm cell method)

Rus�ng of Iron (Color change that occurs on the surface)

 Requires H2O and O2
 Oxida�on  Fe(s)  Fe2+(aq) + 2e
 Reduc�on  2H2O + O2 + 4e  4OH-(aq)
2Fe2+ + 4OH-(aq)  2Fe(OH)2
4Fe(OH)2 + O2  2Fe2O3.H2O + H2O
 Acids and common salt (NaCl) increase the process of rus�ng
 Bases decrease the process of rus�ng
 Applying paint, grease or oil on iron, coa�ng iron with zinc or magnesium (galvanizing) and
coa�ng iron with �n can prevent rus�ng.

UNIT 13: ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Magnets
Electromagnets Permanent Magnets
Magne�sm exists only while a current is Magne�sm is a characteris�c of the material of
passing through the coil of the electromagnet. the magnet and it remains permanently.
• Around any magnet, there is a region within which the magnet has an influence. This region is
known as the magne�c field.

Magne�c Effect of a Current

• When an electric current flows through an electric conductor, a magne�c field is created in the
vicinity of the conductor.
• Danish scien�st Hans Chris�ne Oersted was the first to observe this.
• Rules to iden�fy direc�on:-
Maxwell’s corkscrew rule Right Hand grip rule

A dot inside a circle is used to indicate a magne�c field coming out of the page while a cross inside
a circle used to indicate a magne�c field going into the page

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Magne�c Force

• Where is a current carrying conductor perpendicular to a magne�c field, it produces a force.

• Force depends on Magne�c field, Current and Length
• Rules to iden�fy direc�on :-
Fleming’s le� hand rule

• Used in:
Loud speaker
A device that converts electrical signals into sound waves.
Components of a Loudspeaker
Cardboard Cone  To produce sound.
Coil
Ring Magnet: A permanent magnet that surrounds the coil.
Suppor�ng Metal Frame

How it Works
An electrical signal is sent to the coil. The current flowing through the coil interacts with the
magne�c field of the ring magnet, crea�ng an electromagne�c force. This force causes the coil
and the atached cone to vibrate back and forth. The vibra�ons of the cone create pressure
waves in the air, which we perceive as sound.

DC Motor
 Current flows from posi�ve to nega�ve terminal
 Magne�c field always travels from North to South
Parts
 Armature  Give rise to rota�on by genera�ng a couple
when current pass through it.
 Magne�c poles  Produce a magne�c field
 Commutator  Alternate the direc�on of current flow
Electromagne�c Induc�on

• When there is a current flow through a conductor placed in a magne�c field, a force is exerted
on the conductor causing it to move. Electromagne�c induc�on is the inverse of this. That is, if
a conductor placed in a magne�c field is set in mo�on, then an electromo�ve force is created
between the terminals of the conductor.
• First introduced to the world by Michael Faraday.
• No of Turns, Magne�c field and Speed the factors affec�ng Faraday’s Law

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• Rules to iden�fy direc�on:-
Fleming’s right hand rule

• Used in:
Bicycle Dynamo

 When the head rotates, Maget will also rotate to create a

change in Magne�c field.
 Due to this change an Alterna�ve current will be created.

Transformers

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
=
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Transformers
Step up Transformers Step down Transformer
Increase the voltage Decrease the voltage

No. of Secondary Coil > No. of Primary Coil No. of Secondary Coil < No. of Primary Coil
When current is supplied to houses one step up and two stepdown transformers are used.

If transformer is 100% efficient

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃. . 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 × 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃. . 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆. . 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 × 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆. . 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 × 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 × 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

UNIT 14: HYDROCARBONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

• A hydrocarbon is an organic compound consis�ng of hydrogen and carbon.

Confirming the presence of hydrogen in candle wax.
When the candle burns, water is produced, turning anhydrous
copper sulfate from white to blue, indica�ng hydrogen in the
wax. Addi�onally, limewater turns milky due to carbon dioxide
produc�on, confirming carbon in the wax.

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 No of Carbon Alkane Alkene Alkyne
C–C C=C C≡C

1 Carbon – Meth Methane

2 Carbon – Eth Ethane Ethene Ethyne
3 Carbon – Prop Propane Propene
4 Carbon – But Butane Butene
5 Carbon – Pent Pentane Pentene

Polymers
- Large molecules formed by the joining of a large number of small molecules with one another
are known as polymers.

Rubber
Monomer  Isoprene 

Vulcanized rubber is natural rubber treated with sulfur to form cross-links between its linear chains.
This process reduces elas�city and makes the rubber harder.

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Classifica�on of polymers based on structure

UNIT 15: BIOSPHERE

• Environment is the combina�on of physical and biological components where organisms

interact.
• Environmental Equilibrium is the balanced rela�onship between organisms and their physical
environment.

Inividual Population Community Ecosystem Biosphere

• The number of organisms of a species, living in a unit area of a selected habitat is called the
popula�on density.
Typical growth curve

Phase 1  Slow Phase (Lag Phase)

Phase 2  High growth phase (Exponen�al phase)
Birth Rate > Death Rate
Phase 3  Decelera�on phase
Phase 4  Sta�onery phase (Stabilizing Phase)
Birth Rate = Death Rate

Growth of curve of human popula�on

Reasons of Rapid growth

- Increase of birth rate
- Decrease of death rate

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Flow of Energy and Nutrients
• The sun is the ul�mate source of energy for all ecosystems in the biosphere.
• The flow of energy and nutrients between different ecosystems is essen�al for the biosphere's
existence.
Food Webs
 Food webs represent the complex network of feeding rela�onships among organisms in an
ecosystem.
 Different organisms occupy different trophic levels (e.g., producers, primary consumers,
secondary consumers) within the food web.
Food Chains
 A food chain illustrates the linear flow of energy and nutrients from producers (e.g., plants)
to consumers (e.g., herbivores, carnivores) in a step-by-step sequence.
Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Toad → Cobra → Hawk
Mode of Nutri�on
Autotrophs Heterotrophs Decomposers
Organisms which can Organisms that depend on Organisms that feed on bodies
transform simple inorganic food produced by another of the dead organisms and
compounds to organic organisms. These are the organic waste products by
compounds in order to fulfill Consumers. conver�ng complex organic
their nutri�on requirement. compounds into simple
compounds.

Ecological Pyramids
Number Pyramid Biomass Pyramid Energy Pyramid
The graphical representa�on The graphical representa�on The graphical representa�on
of number of organisms in that shows the total amount of that shows the amount of
different trophic levels organic mater present in energy, flows through different
different trophic levels trophic levels
Unit  m-2 Unit  gm-2 yr-1 Unit  kJ m-2 yr-1

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Biogeochemical cycle
The process of cyclic circula�on of essen�al chemical components through atmosphere,
hydrosphere and lithosphere of biosphere is called Biogeochemical cycle.

Carbon Cycle
 Photosynthesis is the primary method
of carbon fixa�on in ecosystems.
 Animals obtain carbon by consuming
green plants, while decomposers
digest dead organisms for carbon.
 All organisms release carbon dioxide
(CO₂) during respira�on.
 In the absence of decomposers,
carbon in dead organisms converts to
fossil fuels over millions of years.
 Burning fossil fuels releases carbon
into the atmosphere.
 Microorganisms accelerate carbon release from dead mater into the atmosphere, playing a
key role in the carbon cycle.
Nitrogen Cycle
Methods of Nitrogen Fixa�on
 Biological fixa�on
o Free-living bacteria (e.g.,
Azotobacter) and symbio�c
bacteria (e.g., Rhizobium in root
nodules) convert atmospheric
nitrogen (N₂) into ammonium
ions (NH₄⁺).
 Atmospheric fixa�on
o Lightning converts atmospheric
nitrogen into nitric oxide (NO)
and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂).
 Industrial fixa�on
o Atmospheric nitrogen is converted into nitrates during fer�lizer produc�on.
 Nitrifica�on:
o Nitrosomonas bacteria convert ammonium compounds to nitrites.
o Nitrobacter bacteria convert nitrites to nitrates.
o Plants absorb nitrates to synthesize proteins, which transfer to animals through food
chains.
 Ammonifica�on:
o Microbial decomposi�on of dead organisms produces ammonium compounds.
 Denitrifica�on:
o Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus bacteria convert nitrates back to atmospheric nitrogen
(N₂), comple�ng the nitrogen cycle.

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 Environmental Pollu�on
Discharge of pollutants, which cause deleterious effects on natural environment
Soil Pollu�on Water Pollu�on Air Pollu�on

Factors affec�ng environmental pollu�on

• Excessive usage of Agro chemicals
 Agrochemicals are ar�ficially synthesized chemicals used in agriculture, including fer�lizers,
weedicides, insec�cides, and fungicides.
 Provide short-term benefits but have environmental and health hazards.
 Weedicides, insec�cides, and fungicides are collec�vely called pes�cides.
 The lethal dose (LD₅₀) is the amount of pes�cide required to kill 50% of a pest species
popula�on.
 As per the government gazete of December 23, 2014, the use and sale of Glyphosate,
Propanil, Carbaryl, Chlorpyrifos, and Carbofuran were banned.
• Discharge of industrial effluents to the environment
 Industrial Waste
o Waste materials discharged a�er produc�on that cannot be reused, leading to harmful
environmental impacts.
 Hydrocarbons
o Release Methods
 Methane (CH₄) is released by bacterial ac�vity on organic mater in marshy lands.
 Emissions from the use of liquid petroleum, petrol, diesel, and kerosene.
 Lubrica�ng oils and grease, products of crude oil dis�lla�on, also release
hydrocarbons.
 Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
o Greenhouse Effect:
 Gases like CO₂, methane (CH₄), water vapor, ozone, and CFCs absorb radia�on from
Earth and re-radiate it, warming the planet.
 Excessive emission of these gases leads to global warming.
o Sources of Greenhouse Gases:
 CO₂ from the excessive combus�on of fossil fuels.
 Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) released during fossil fuel combus�on and volcanic erup�ons.
 CH₄ from anaerobic decomposi�on in marshy lands and garbage.
 CFCs from refrigera�on and air condi�oning appliances.
 Heavy Metals Accumula�on:
o Heavy metals have high density and molecular mass.
o Discarded metal items, vehicle parts, and instruments release heavy metals into the
environment.
o Some areas naturally contain heavy metals in the soil.
o Release Methods
 These release heavy metals like cadmium (Cd).
 Excessive agrochemical use Leads to arsenic (As) contamina�on.
 Lead (Pb): Released from leaded petrol.

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  Mercury (Hg): Released from coal use, discarded thermometers, barometers, CFL
bulbs, ship paints, and industrial waste.
 Chromium (Cr): Released from paints, cement, paper, and rubber, where it's used as
a pigment.
 Par�culate Mater:
o Types:
 Solid par�culate mater.
 Liquid par�culate mater.
o Both types accumulate in the air, affec�ng air quality.
 Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂):
o Characteris�cs: A colorless gas with a pungent odor.
o Release Methods:
 Burning coal as a fuel.
 Combus�on of petroleum.
 Burning vulcanized rubber products.
 Bacterial ac�vity on organic mater.
 Volcanic erup�ons.
 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOₓ):
o NO and NO₂ contribute significantly to environmental pollu�on.
o Release Methods:
 Lightning: The reac�on between N₂ and O₂ forms oxides of nitrogen.
 Vehicle engines: Combus�on in engines forms oxides of nitrogen from N₂ and O₂.
 Food scraps, spoiled food, plas�c and polythene wastes, discarded clothes, glass and
porcelain items, garden wastes and human excretory mater belong to domes�c wastes.
 The electrical and electronic accessories which are stopped permanently from reselling, and
selling are called e-waste. Ex: Lead  Batery | Mercury  Thermometers
 Nuclear waste
o Nuclear wastes are radioac�ve and highly toxic materials discarded by nuclear
prepara�on centers and nuclear weapons facili�es.
o Uranium and plutonium are commonly used as nuclear fuels. These materials remain
radioac�ve for long periods.
o Disposal Methods
 Encased in thick concrete or metal coverings.
 Deposited in deep sea or buried underground.
• Discharge of domes�c chemical waste.
 The substances that are added to food to enhance the taste, odor, appearance nutrifica�on
and shelf - life are called food addi�ves.
o Diseases: Wheezing, Diabetes, Allergies, Mental Disorders.
 Cleaning Agents
 Medicines
 Cosme�cs
 Paints
• Combus�on of fossil fuel and waste mater
• Persistent Organic Pollutants. (POP) [ Highly Toxic ]

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  Adverse effects
o Inborn defects, Cancers, Mental defects, Weakness of the immune system and
reproduc�ve system
Adverse effects of environmental pollu�on
• Acid Rain
o Naturally rain is slightly acidic with a pH of about 5.6 due to the dissolu�on of CO₂ and NO₂.
o Rain mixed with sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid, and nitric acid is termed acid rain.
o Occurs when the pH of rain decreases due to increased atmospheric pollutants like Sulphur
dioxide, Sulphur trioxide, Nitrogen dioxide.
o Adverse effects
 Destruc�on of forests and crops
 Destruc�on of aqua�c organisms due to increase in acidity of water
 Affect absorp�on of minerals by plants.
• Global Warming
o An increase in the Earth's temperature due to the buildup of greenhouse gases like carbon
dioxide, methane, and CFCs in the atmosphere.
o These gases trap heat from the sun, preven�ng it from escaping back into space.
o Consequences:-
 Rising air and sea surface temperatures
 Mel�ng of glaciers and snow cover
 Rising sea levels
 Changes in global climate paterns
 Increased humidity
 Ocean heat content
o Effects of the Greenhouse Effect:
 Mel�ng of polar glaciers
 Rising sea levels, leading to the submergence of small islands
 Changes in global climate paterns
• Deple�on of Ozone layer
o Ozon is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms (O3) found in the stratosphere (around
25 km above Earth's surface).
o Role: Absorbs harmful UV radia�on from the sun, protec�ng life on Earth.
o Oxygen in the stratosphere absorbs UV radia�on, forming atomic oxygen. This reacts with
oxygen molecules to form ozone.
o Substances like CFCs and nitric oxide (NO) react with ozone, breaking it down.
o Consequences: Holes in the ozone layer allow more UV radia�on to reach Earth's surface.
o Ill Effects of Ozone Deple�on
 Human Health:
• Skin cancer, Cataracts, Weakened immune system
 Environment
• Reduced crop yields, Damage to marine ecosystems, Disrup�on of the food chain

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• Photo chemical smog
o It is a yellow colored mist that is formed due to reac�on, resulted between sunlight and the
chemicals in vehicle emission, which causes eye irrita�on and vision impairment.
o Adverse effects
 Cause respiratory tract diseases, Toxic to Plants, Affect Vision, Quality of Rubber
and Clothes is reduced.
• Biomagnifica�on
o Collec�on of toxic chemical pollutants along with food chains from one trophic level to the
other is called biomagnifica�on.
o These do not degrade easily, and retain for a longer period of �me
o Soluble in Lipids
o Becomes ac�ve as biomolecules
• Eutrophica�on
o Excessive nutrient enrichment (mainly phosphorus and nitrogen) in water bodies due to
pollu�on from sources like sewage, agricultural runoff, and industrial waste.
o Increased nutrients lead to rapid growth of algae, forming a thick green layer on the water
surface.
o Overpopulated algae eventually die and decompose. Decomposi�on by bacteria depletes
oxygen in the water.
o Consequences:
 Loss of water transparency
 Water becomes unusable for drinking and other purposes
 Reduc�on in biodiversity due to the death of aqua�c plants and animals
 Loss of aesthe�c value of the water body
• Increase of Radia�on level
o Caused by Nuclear waste and Ozone layer deple�on
Indirect effect of environmental pollu�on
• Loss of Habitats: Pollu�on disrupts natural habitats, forcing animals to move and impac�ng their
survival.
• Deser�fica�on: Soil degrada�on, o�en caused by pollu�on, leads to deser�fica�on, making land
unsuitable for plant growth.
• Reduc�on in Crop Yield: Pollu�on can affect photosynthesis, reducing crop produc�vity.
• Construc�on and Degrada�on of Natural Environment: Acid rain damages buildings and natural
structures like marble.
• Economic Losses: Cleaning up and mi�ga�ng pollu�on requires significant financial resources.
Factors Affec�ng Human Lifestyle
• Industrializa�on: The shi� from an agricultural society to one based on manufacturing and
produc�on of goods and services. It began in the 1800s in Western Europe.
• Urbaniza�on: The concentra�on of people in ci�es, driven by the search for employment and
beter living condi�ons.
• Commercial Agriculture: Large-scale farming focused on producing goods for the market, o�en
using technologies like modified seeds, agrochemicals, and machinery.

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• Irriga�on Systems: Human-made structures like canals, dams, and reservoirs used to supply
water for agriculture.
• Abundant Use of Materials and Energy: Modern lifestyles rely heavily on technology and
resources, o�en leading to environmental harm due to the use of harmful materials and energy
consump�on.
Problems that arise due to changes in life style
• Growth of Non-Contagious Diseases
o Diseases not spread between individuals.
o Common Diseases: Cancers, pulmonary diseases, diabetes.
o Causes: Excessive tobacco and alcohol consump�on, unhealthy diets, lack of exercise.
• Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
o Types:
 Acute Renal Failure: Temporary loss of kidney func�on, reversible with treatment.
 Chronic Renal Failure: Gradual and irreversible kidney func�on loss.
o Symptoms:
 Frequent urina�on at night.
 Low or no urine output.
 Back pain, swollen feet/ankles.
 Pale skin, rashes, protein in urine.
o Special Features:
 O�en affects farmers exposed to agrochemicals and hard water.
 Delayed symptoms lead to unno�ced damage.
o Contribu�ng Factors:
 Heavy metals (Cd, Pb, As), agrochemicals, toxic algae, dehydra�on, liquor, and
uncontrolled drug use.
o Preven�ve Measures:
 Avoid agrochemicals, maintain healthy lifestyles, drink clean water, and avoid smoking
and alcohol.
• Diabetes
o Failure of insulin secre�on, leading to high blood glucose.
o Risk Factors: Sedentary lifestyles, fast-diges�ng foods, and stress.
o Complica�ons: Kidney damage, blindness.
• Cancer
o Cause: Uncontrolled cell division, o�en linked to radia�on, chemicals, and heavy metals.
o Risk: Increased due to industrializa�on and environmental pollutants.
• Heart Diseases
o Causes: Narrowed/blocked blood vessels or malfunc�oning heart muscles and valves.
o Forms: Chest pain, heart atacks, strokes, thrombosis.
o Risk Factors: Lack of exercise, stress, and convenience-driven lifestyles.
• Pulmonary Diseases
o Causes: Pollu�on, harmful gases from vehicles/factories.
o Examples: Wheezing due to airway obstruc�on by mucus.

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• Gastri�s
o Cause: Stomach lining inflamma�on from acidity.
o Risk Factors: Irregular meals, oily foods, stress.
• Cataracts
o Cause: Loss of lens transparency due to protein changes.
o Risk Factors: UV exposure from ozone deple�on and industrial gases.
Sustainable development and environmental management.

• Sustainable development is the smart use of the natural resources by safeguarding the balance
of the environment in such a manner that the future genera�ons can use them in the future.
• Mul�ple Cropping
o Growing different crops in the same land area instead of large-scale monocropping.
o Benefits:
 Reduces the risk of disease wiping out en�re crops.
 Reduces pest resistance by diversifying plant species.
• Biological Pest Control
o Using natural predators (plants, animals, microorganisms) to control pests without
harming the crops.
o Ex: Control of coconut caterpillar using the larval parasitoid Dimokia javanica.
• Use of Organic Fer�lizers
o Fer�lizers made from decomposed plant and animal mater.
o Benefits:
 Improves soil structure and porosity.
 Enhances the ac�vity of soil organisms.
 Environmentally friendly as it avoids synthe�c chemicals.
• Reforesta�on for Environmental Balance
o Environmental Management is the proper use of natural resources to meet human needs
without harming the environment.
o Human ac�vi�es, such as large-scale have reduced forest cover.
o Solu�on: Reforesta�on to restore the natural balance and prevent the harmful effects of
deforesta�on.
Tradi�onal Knowledge and Use of Technology

• Agriculture
o Due to the rise in the use of machines and agricultural chemicals self-sufficiency has been
diminished.
o Use local seeds and cul�va�on methods, to regain self-sufficiency and reduce dependence
on imported chemicals and seeds.
• Irriga�on Technology
o Sri Lanka's irriga�on system, par�cularly the ancient large tanks, is considered one of the
most sophis�cated water management systems in the world.

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 o Construc�on of Tank Bunds: Tank bunds are made of mul�ple layers
of clay, soil, gravel, and other materials, ensuring stability.
o Sluices and Besiktas: Sluices regulate water flow from tanks, with
Bisokotuwas helping manage water pressure.
o Ralapanawa: Stones placed on the tank bund's interior slope protect
against erosion from water waves.
o Water Catchment Area: Strict regula�ons are in place for the Head Wall area, preven�ng
deforesta�on and cul�va�on to preserve the water catchment region.
• Conven�onal Food Paterns
o Tradi�onal food paterns in Sri Lanka were beneficial for health, but modern dietary habits
have led to the rise of non-contagious diseases like hypertension and diabetes.
o Natural Flavorings: Improve food's color, taste, and aroma while possessing bactericidal
proper�es.
o Examples:
 Cinnamon: Controls blood glucose and has an�cancer proper�es.
 Clove: Relieves pain and has an�microbial proper�es.
 Pepper: S�mulates diges�on and relieves abdominal disorders.
• Indigenous Medical Science
o Indigenous medical prac�ces, including Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and na�ve medicine,
have a long history. Ayurveda, in par�cular, is a holis�c system of medicine origina�ng
from India.
o Three Doshas(Reac�ons that take in human body according to ayurveda):
 Va: Air
 Pith: Bile
 Kapha: Phlegm
o An imbalance of these doshas leads to disease.
o Ayurvedic Treatments:
 Medicine: Using plant-based treatments to restore balance.
 Food: Specific foods are prescribed to aid in healing.
 Exercises: Certain physical ac�vi�es are recommended to promote health.
o The focus is on trea�ng the root cause of the disease, which prevents side effects, unlike
many modern pharmaceu�cal treatments.
Carbon Footprint and Minimiza�on of Food Mile
Carbon Footprint
• The carbon footprint refers to the total amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions released into
the atmosphere as a result of the ac�vi�es of an individual, organiza�on, or community.
Water Footprint
• The water footprint is the amount of fresh water used in the produc�on or supply of goods and
services consumed by an individual or group.
• Tracking the water footprint helps understand the environmental impact of water usage across
industries and daily ac�vi�es.

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Food Mile
• Food miles refer to the distance food travels from its place of produc�on to the consumer.
• Longer food miles o�en result in higher transporta�on-related emissions, impac�ng the overall
carbon footprint of food.
To reduce carbon footprints and food miles, it's essen�al to:
• Encourage local produc�on and consump�on of food.
• Adopt sustainable prac�ces in agriculture and transporta�on.
• Priori�ze shorter supply chains, reducing the need for long-distance food transport.
Waste Management
Waste Management Techniques (4R)

• Reuse: Reusing items as much as possible reduces waste and prolongs the life of materials.
o Example: Reusing polythene bags.
• Reduce: Minimizing unnecessary consump�on and avoiding excessive use of items.
o Example: Avoiding the overuse of an�bio�cs and vitamins.
• Replace: Subs�tu�ng harmful materials with eco-friendly alterna�ves.
o Example: Using organic fer�lizers instead of chemical fer�lizers.
• Recycle: Conver�ng waste into new products to prevent waste and save resources.
o Example: Recycling plas�cs to produce fuel, or producing biogas from animal waste.
Energy Management
Energy management involves the planning and monitoring of energy produc�on and consump�on
to ensure sustainability and minimize costs.
Energy Crisis and Technological Issues
The energy crisis is a result of the growing demand for limited natural energy resources, leading to
increased energy prices and resource scarcity. Some reasons for the energy crisis include:
• Rapid popula�on growth.
• The expansion of industries.
• Overconsump�on of energy.
• Wastage of energy.
• Insufficient explora�on of renewable energy resources.
Energy Consump�on Monitoring: Monitor and track energy consump�on daily to iden�fy
inefficiencies and areas for improvement.
Energy Audi�ng: Assessing energy usage in various ins�tu�ons and recommending ways to improve
efficiency and reduce consump�on.
Energy Efficiency: Using the least amount of energy possible to achieve the desired output.
Sustainable Energy Use: Sustainable energy use refers to maintaining energy consump�on at a level
that can be supported over the long term without deple�ng resources.

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Importance of Natural Energy in Architecture
In building design, it's essen�al to consider natural energy sources to reduce reliance on ar�ficial
systems and improve energy efficiency:
• Ven�la�on: Reduces the need for air condi�oning.
• Daylight Harves�ng: Reduces the need for ar�ficial ligh�ng and lowers energy consump�on.
• Rainwater Harves�ng: Helps to conserve energy.
• Heat Management: Reduce the need for air condi�oning.
Interna�onal Conven�ons for Environmental Management

• Montreal Protocol: Aims to protect the ozone layer by controlling the use of ozone-deple�ng
substances.
• Kyoto Protocol: Focuses on minimizing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change.
State ins�tu�ons which implement laws and regula�ons related to environmental protec�on.
• Ministry of Environment.
• Central Environment Authority.
• Marine Environment Protec�on Authority.
• Geological Survey and Mines Bureau.

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