Chapter 5: Wireless Sensor Networks
1. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)
A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) consists of spatially distributed autonomous sensors to
monitor physical or environmental conditions and to cooperatively pass their data through the
network to a main location.
A. WSN Architecture
The architecture of a WSN is designed to balance energy efficiency with data reliability.
Sensor Node Level: Each node acts as both a data source and a router. It consists of a
sensing unit, a processing unit (microcontroller), a transceiver for radio communication,
and a power source (often constrained batteries).
Network Level: Nodes are deployed in a "sensor field." Data is transmitted multi-hop
toward a Sink or Base Station.
External Level: The Sink connects to the Internet or a satellite link to provide the end-
user with data via a Task Manager.
B. Components of a WSN Node
1. Sensing Unit: Usually composed of two subunits: sensors and ADC (Analog to Digital
Converters). The sensor produces an analog signal based on observed physical
phenomena, which the ADC converts into a digital signal for the processor.
2. Processing Unit: Managed by a small storage unit, it executes protocols that allow the
node to collaborate with others.
3. Transceiver Unit: Connects the node to the network.
4. Power Unit: The most critical component; often supported by energy-scavenging units
like solar cells.
C. Applications of WSN
Environmental Sensing: Monitoring forest fires, floods, or agricultural soil moisture.
Structural Health: Sensors embedded in bridges or buildings to monitor vibration and
stress.
Industrial Monitoring: Tracking machine health in factories to prevent failure
(Predictive Maintenance).
Healthcare: Wearable or implanted sensors for monitoring vital signs in real-time.
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2. Zigbee Technology
Zigbee is a low-cost, low-power, wireless mesh network standard specifically designed for long-
battery-life devices in control and monitoring applications.
The Zigbee stack consists of several layers, each providing specific functions to the layer above
it:
Physical (PHY) Layer: Operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band. It manages the RF
transceiver, channel selection, and energy detection.
MAC Layer: Handles the "Beacons" for synchronization, manages the CSMA-CA
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) mechanism, and provides a
reliable link between two nodes.
Network (NWK) Layer: Responsible for network formation
(association/disassociation), routing, and ensuring security.
Application Layer (APL): Consists of the Application Support Sub-layer (APS) and
Zigbee Device Objects (ZDO), defining the device's role in the network.
B. Zigbee Network Topologies
1. Star Topology: Simple but high dependence on the central coordinator.
2. Tree Topology: A hierarchical structure where data flows from children to parents up to
the coordinator.
3. Mesh Topology: The most robust. Each node can communicate with any node within
range. It is self-healing; if one path fails, the NWK layer automatically finds a new route.
C. Zigbee Device Types
Zigbee Coordinator (ZC): The "Trust Center." Only one exists per network. It starts the
network and stores the security keys.
Zigbee Router (ZR): Runs an application and acts as an intermediate router, passing
data from other devices.
Zigbee End Device (ZED): Cannot relay data. It stays in "sleep mode" most of the time
to save power, waking up only to transmit its sensor data.
3. Proximity Technologies: NFC and RFID
A. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
RFID is a wireless system comprised of two main components: tags and readers.
Components of an RFID System:
The RFID Tag (Transponder): Consists of an integrated circuit (IC) and an antenna.
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o Passive Tags: No battery; they "harvest" power from the reader's radio waves.
o Active Tags: Contain a battery and transmit their signal autonomously.
The RFID Reader (Interrogator): A network-connected device with an antenna that
sends signals to the tag and reads the response.
Middleware/Backend: Software that processes the raw data (e.g., tracking inventory in a
warehouse).
B. Near Field Communication (NFC)
NFC is an evolution of RFID technology that enables secure, two-way interactions.
Technical Details: Operates at 13.56 MHz with a maximum data rate of 424 kbps. It is
limited to a very short range (typically < 4 cm) to prevent eavesdropping.
Operating Modes:
1. Reader/Writer: Reading a "smart" tag in a poster.
2. Peer-to-Peer: Two smartphones exchanging a file or contact.
3. Card Emulation: The phone acts as a contactless credit card.
4. Technology Evolution and Comparison (2G to 5G)
Mobile computing generations have shifted from basic voice services to high-speed packet-
switched data networks.
Generation Standard Switching Max Data Core Innovation
Method Rate
2G GSM/CDMA Circuit Switched 64 Kbps Digital Voice & SMS
3G WCDMA/UMTS Mixed (CS & PS) 2 Mbps Mobile Web & Video
4G LTE All-IP (Packet) 1 Gbps High-speed Broadband
5G NR (New Radio) All-IP (Packet) 20 Gbps Ultra-low Latency & Massive
IoT
The 5G Advantage: Unlike its predecessors, 5G uses Millimeter Waves and Beamforming to
deliver massive capacity and latency as low as 1ms, enabling autonomous vehicles and remote
surgery.
5. Bluetooth and Wi-Fi Coexistence
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Modern mobile devices often use both Bluetooth (802.15.1) and Wi-Fi (802.11) simultaneously.
Both operate in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, which creates a high risk of interference.
The Mechanism: Bluetooth uses Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS),
jumping across 79 channels. Wi-Fi uses a wider, static channel.
Single Band Solution: To work in a single band, devices use Adaptive Frequency
Hopping (AFH). The Bluetooth radio monitors the spectrum for interference from the
Wi-Fi signal. When it identifies a frequency used by Wi-Fi, it marks that channel as
"bad" and excludes it from its hopping sequence.
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