Periodicity

The periodic table is a list of all known elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number,
from 1 to 118. In addition to this, the elements are arranged in such a way that those atoms with
the same number of shells are placed together, and atoms with similar electronic configurations
in the outer shell are also placed together.

Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer independently came to the same conclusion about how
elements should be grouped.

The elements are arranged in rows and columns. Elements with one shell are placed in the first
row (i.e. H and He) Elements with two shells are placed in the second row (Li to Ne) and so on.

A row of elements thus arranged is called a period. The period number, n, is the outer energy
level that is occupied by electrons. In addition, the elements are aligned vertically (in columns)
with other elements in different rows, if they share the same outer-shell electronic conguration
The outer electrons are known as the valence electrons.

A column of elements thus arranged is called a group.

Since the electronic congurations of H and He are unusual, they do not fit comfortably into any
group. They are thus allocated a group based on similarities in physical and chemical properties
with other members of the group. He is placed in group 0 on this basis, but hydrogen does not
behave like any other element and so is placed in a group of its own.

The blocks of the periodic table

All elements belong to one of four main blocks: the s-block, the p-block, the d-block and the f-
block.

 The s-block elements are all those with only s electrons in the outer shell.
 The p-block elements are all those with at least one p-electron in the outer shell.
 The d-block elements are all those with at least one d-electron and at least one s-electron
but no f or p electrons in the outer shell (up to 5d).
 The f-block elements are all those with at least one f-electron and at least one s-electron
but no d or p electrons in the outer shell.

The physical and chemical properties of elements in the periodic table show clear patterns
related to the position of each element in the table. Elements in the same group show similar
properties, and properties change gradually as you go across a period.

As atomic number increases, the properties of the elements show trends which repeat themselves
in each period of the periodic table. These trends are known as periodic trends and the study of
these trends is known as periodicity.
 Modern Periodic Law

This law states that the physical and chemical property of an element is the periodic function of
its atomic number.

Periodic Properties and their Variation down the group and across the period on the
periodic table

All elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic number from left to right. The
periodic properties include:

1. Atomic Radius

The atomic radius is the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron of an atom. The
atomic radius is measured by taking two atoms of the same element, measuring the distance
between their nuclei, and then halving this distance. In metals, this is also called the metallic
radius, and in non-metals, the covalent radius.

Across the period, the atomic radii decrease. This is because the number of protons (the nuclear
charge) and the number of electrons increase by one each time you go from an element to the
next element to the right. The elements in a period all have the same number of shells (so the
shielding effect is the same). This means that as you go across the period, the nucleus attracts the
electrons more strongly, pulling them closer to the nucleus. Because of this, the atomic radius
(and thus the size of the atoms) decreases across the period but increases down the group from
top to bottom of a column due to the increasing value of the number of shells and the further
away of the valency electron from the nucleus effect.

2. Ionic radius

The ionic radius is the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron of an ion.

Metals produce positively charged ions (cations) whereas nonmetals produce negatively charged
ions (anions). The cations have lost their valence electrons which causes them to be much
smaller than their parent atoms. Because there are fewer electrons, this also means that there is
less shielding of the outer electrons. Going across the period from Na to Si the ions get smaller
due to the increasing nuclear charge attracting the outer electrons in the second principal
quantum shell nucleus (which has an increasing atomic number).

The anions are larger than their original parent atoms because each atom has gained one or more
electrons in their third principal quantum shell. This increases the repulsion between electrons,
while the nuclear charge is still the same, causing the electron cloud to spread out.

Going across P to Cl the ionic radii decreases as the nuclear charge increases across the period
and fewer electrons are gained by the atoms (P gains 3 electrons, S 2 electrons and Cl 1
electron).
 3. Ionisation Energy

Amount of energy required to remove an electron from the ground state of a gaseous atom or ion.
First ionization energy is that energy required to remove first electron.

Second ionization energy is that energy required to remove second electron, etc. E.g. the first
ionisation energy of Na is:

Na (g) → Na+ (g) + e-

There is a general increase in IE across a period.

It therefore gets harder to remove any electrons.

Going down a column, less energy is required to remove the first electron. For atoms in the same
group, effective nuclear charge is essentially the same, but the valence electrons are farther from
the nucleus, due ionization energy decreases down the group.

4. Electron Affinity

Electron Affinity is the energy change accompanying addition of electron to gaseous atom.

Cl + e− → Cl−

In general, electron affinity becomes more exothermic as you go from left to right across a row.

In general, electron affinity increases as we go from left to right in period. On the contrary,
electron affinity decreases in a group from top to bottom.

5. Electronegativity

In a chemical bond, electron attraction capability of atoms is called electronegativity. From left
to right in period electronegativity increases and from top to bottom in a group electronegativity
decreases. Since noble gases do not form chemical bonds, we can not talk about their
electronegativity.