Introduction to Geodesy
Basic Survey Course
2006
[Link] 1
Geodesy – a definition
• “Geodesy is the discipline that deals with the measurement and representation
of the Earth, including it’s gravity field, in a three-dimensional time varying
space”
• Vanicek and Krakiwsky, Geodesy : The Concepts
[Link] 2
1
Geodesy and Coordinate Integrity – Language of Surveyors
What on Earth …?
UTM
Geoid WGS84
OSGB 1936
EGM96 Datum
GPS
International Feet
Airy Spheroid
MSL
Map Projection
ED.50
Ellipsoid
Transverse Mercator
International 1924
Where on Earth …?
[Link] 3
Objectives
• Introduction to Geodesy
• Basic understanding of geodetic datums
• Understanding of map projections & coordinate systems
• Awareness of coordinate transformations
• Basics of common coordinate systems used in marine environment
[Link] 4
2
Basic Geodesy
• Science of Applied Maths associated with describing the Earth’s surface
• Shape of the Earth
• Mathematical Representation
• Projection onto a Plane Surface
• Components
– Ellipsoids / Spheroids
– Datums
– Projections
[Link] 5
It’s more than just coordinates...
Geology
Environment Seismic data, gravity & magnetics
DATA
Hydrographic data DATA DATA
wrecks etc. Well data,
Hydrocarbon production
DATA DATA
Cultural Data
DATA DATA
Engineering data
Geographical
Subsurface
Interpretation DATA Location DATA Document Mgt.
X, Y, (Z)
Fields, Leads &
Pipeline
DATA DATA Prospects
Mgt. System
Bathymetry data DATA DATA New Opportunities
DATA DATA DATA
Licensing
Survey Ops.
etc, etc, etc ...
[Link] 6
3
The Map Projection Process
Sphere or
Spheroid
(mathematical
figure close to
shape of
Earth)
Map
Projection
[Link] 7
How to produce a dry hole
Planned well at coordinates 100-300 m Actual well at coordinates
lat=57°
lat=57°00’
00’00”
00” N, lon=1
lon=1°°00’
00’00”
00”E lat=57°
lat=57°00’
00’00”
00”N, lon=1
lon=1°
°00’
00’00”
00”E
(European system) (GPS coordinate system)
Oil/gas
[Link] 8
4
Geoid - the Shape of the Earth
• Irregular Surface
– Oceans/Trenches/Plains/Valleys/Mountains
– Topographical surface
• Geoid – Equipotential surface
– based on points of equal gravitational potential
– Imagine surface covered by ocean, ≈ mean sea level
– Not a mathematical shape
• Originally presumed to be flat/disc shaped
– OK for small areas
• Developed to Sphere/Globe -
– Better definition similar to mathematical Earth Model
• Oblate Spheroid – Flattened at the Poles
[Link] 9
The Geoid
Actual
Earth’s
Sphere
Surface
World
Geoid Spheroid
Centre of
Local
Spheroid Centre of
World
Spheroid
Local
Spheroid
[Link] 10
5
Classical Geodesy
• Classical Methods (1800’s – 1950’s)
– Triangulation (Angle measurements)
– Baseline (Invar wires,tapes)
– Laplace Stations
– Control Networks
• Continuous
• Chains
• Derive and then provide First Order control
– Shape
– Scale
– Azimuth
[Link] 11
Geodetic Revolution 1950’s to date
• Modern Developments
– EDM (Tellurometer, Geodimeter, Hiran/Shoran)
• Zero order Traverse
• Intercontinental connections
– Satellite Observations
– Satellite Systems
• TRANSIT
• GPS
– Computing Power
• Adjustment
• We can now measure and predict tectonic plate movements of a few millimetres per
year.
[Link] 12
6
Ellipsoid Model
[Link] 13
Spheroid Model
[Link] 14
7
Relationship of Geoid to Ellipsoid
[Link] 15
Choice of Ellipsoid
• Historically, countries choose ellipsoids for reasons such as :
• It was the best known ellipsoid for the whole earth at that time
• It happens to fit the geoid in their area particularly well.
• Neighbouring countries have chosen it.
• It was the most recent ellipsoid recommended by the International Association of
Geodesy
[Link] 16
8
Choosing an Ellipsoid
[Link] 17
Ellipsoids/Spheroids used in UK
• Mathematical Models
• Define a ‘Best-Fit’ to the Earth's Surface
• Some examples
– Airy 1830
• UK’s best fit for National Mapping
– International (1924)
• for Offshore Block Boundaries on European Datum
– WGS-84
• Global best fit for GPS
[Link] 18
9
Ellipsoid Reference List
[Link] 19
Types of coordinate systems
Rectangular/Grid
TM Zero, UTM3, Cartesian
OSGB 36 X,Y,Z
Geographic
WGS84, ED50,
Airy 1830
[Link] 20
10
Spheroidal Co-ordinate System
[Link] 21
Spherical Co-ordinate Systems
[Link] 22
11
Spherical to Cartesian Conversion
[Link] 23
3D Cartesian Co-ordinate System
[Link] 24
12
Distance Computation in 3D Cartesian
[Link] 25
Alternative Co-ordinate Systems
• 3D Space
– Spherical: Latitude/Longitude/Height -ϕ,λ,H
– Cartesian: X/Y/Z
But difficult to use and display
• 2D Plane
– Cartesian: X/Y
– Polar: Range/Bearing
[Link] 26
13
2D Cartesian Co-ordinate System
[Link] 27
Distance Computation in 2D Cartesian
[Link] 28
14
Polar Co-ordinate System
[Link] 29
Relationship Between Polar and Cartesian Co-ordinate
Systems
[Link] 30
15
Projections
• Necessary for Preparation of Maps/Charts
• 2D Representation of Earth’s Surface
• Not all Properties can be retained in the transition from spheroid to plane (Map)
– Area/Distance/Shape
• Equal Area
– Area on Spheroid = Area on Map Projection
• Equidistant Projections
– Distances on Spheroid = Distances on Map
• Conformal Projections
– Shape/Angles on Spheroid = Shape/Area on Map
– Of Primary Use to the Surveyor e.g. TM/UTM
[Link] 31
Map projections
• Represent 3D-Earth on 2D-Map
– Not possible without distortion
Map
Earth
(Ellipsoid)
[Link] 32
16
Aspects of map projections
• Map projections can have the following effects:
straight lines curve
distances change
angles change
areas change
[Link] 33
Map vs. Ellipsoid: big differences!!
Distances change
Areas change
[Link] 34
17
Projections Examples
• Cylindrical
– TM - Transverse Mercator
– UTM - Universal Transverse Mercator
• Conical
– Lambert Conformal Conic
• Azimuthal
– Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area
[Link] 35
Comparison of Projection Types
(Normal) Conic
Cylindrical
Azimuthal
Transverse
Cylindrical
Oblique Secant
Cylindrical Cylindrical
[Link] 36
18
Distortion as a result of a map projection
Globular projection Orthographic projection
Stereographic projection Mercator projection
[Link] 37
Projection Distortions
[Link] 38
19
Distortion : Mercator v. Peters Projection
[Link] 39
Mercator Projection
[Link] 40
20
Mercator Graticule
[Link] 41
Details of the Mercator Projection
North Pole
GN
λ2
λ1
GN
γ2 Ø2
P2
E2
TN2
γ1
Ø1
E1
TN1
Central N2 N1
Meridian
True
False Origin Origin
Equator
500 000m
[Link] 42
21
UTM Projection System
[Link] 43
UTM Standard Parameters
• Zones are 6 Degrees in width
– Example Zone 31
• Central Meridian 3 Degrees East
• False Easting 500000 metres
• False Northing
– 0 for Northern Hemisphere
– 10000000 metres for Southern Hemisphere
• Scale Factor on Central Meridian 0.9996
[Link] 44
22
Projection Distortion - Scale
Increasing
scale For example UTM
distortion
Maximum acceptable
scale distortion
Acceptable area
for use of
projection zone
Zone 1 Zone 3
Zone 2
CM UTM Zone 30 CM UTM Zone 31 (CM UTM Zone 32)
[Link] 45
Ordnance Survey Projection & Grid
[Link] 46
23
Ordnance Survey Grid
Example
OSGB36 Latitude & Longitude
54°30’52.55”N 1°27’55.75”W
Grid Reference
Example
NZ034600013400
OSGB36 Latitude & Longitude
54°30’52.55”N
Central Meridian1°27’55.75”W
2 Degrees W
Origin Latitude 49 Degrees N
Grid Reference
False Easting 400000 metres
NZ034600013400
False Northing –100000 metres
Scale Factor 0.9996012717
[Link] 47
North Reference
Map grid 2 north
True north Map grid 1 north • “north” will be referenced
to either True North or
(map) Grid North.
• the designated choice
varies by application.
• if (map) Grid North is
designated, there is a need
to properly identify which
map grid is being used.
[Link] 48
24
North - Convergence
Lat / long graticule
Grid north
differs from
true north.
Projection grid is constructed ...
The difference … central meridian is along
is known as a line of longitude.
CONVERGENCE
Second projection constructed
with central meridian along a
different line of longitude.
Because the meridians converge
towards the poles, the projection
grids are rotated relative to each
other.
[Link] 49
North (Magnetic)
True pole
Latitude / longitude graticule
Magnetic pole
(position varies True north is direction towards
with time) geographic north pole.
Magnetic north is direction
towards magnetic north pole.
• varies with time.
The difference in the direction
in the horizontal plane between
true north and magnetic north
is MAGNETIC DECLINATION.
• positive when magnetic north
lies east of true north
The difference in the vertical plane is
known as MAGNETIC DIP.
The change with time of declination or
dip is known as MAGNETIC VARIATION.
[Link] 50
25
North Reference Summary
True North
(Map) Grid North
Magnetic North
(at dd/mm/yyyy) Secondary (Map) Grid North
Facility Grid North
• All directions must be defined.
• North will be designated to be either true north or
[map] grid north. This varies by facility.
If (map) grid north is chosen, ensure that the particular map
grid is properly identified:
requires geodetic datum + projection zone
• If the correct north is not identified directions may
be significantly in error.
[Link] 51
Datums
• A Frame of Reference for position and height
• Definition of the:-
– Shape of Earth Model
– Position of the Co-ordinate Reference System
– Transformation Between Datums
• e.g. WGS84 to ED50
• Examples
– ED 50
– NAD
– OSGB 36
[Link] 52
26
Datum Transformation
New Old
3 parameter
transformation
An everyday
requirement with New Old
GPS 7 parameter transformation
[Link] 53
Datum Example
Location
• 51d 30m 45sN
• 0d 20m 20sW
But which datum ?
• ED50 ?
• OSGB36
• WGS84 ?
[Link] 54
27
OSGB36
x WGS84
x
x
ED50
100 metres
[Link] 55
Datums
• Same Location but three very different sets of co-ordinates on three different datums
• ED50
Latitude 51d 30m 45.000s N
Longitude 00d 20m 20.000s W
Height 10.000m
• WGS84
Latitude 51d 30m 41.890s N
Longitude 00d 20m 25.047s W
Height 76.02m
• OSGB1936
Latitude 51d 30m 40.038s N
Longitude 00d 20m 19.329s W
Height 30.969m
[Link] 56
28
WGS84 to ED50 (International)
• Common transformation in NW Europe
• dX = 89.500m
• dY = 93.800m
• dZ = 123.100m
• rZ = 0.156”
• Ppm = 1.2
[Link] 57
Datum Shifts Example
[Link] 58
29
Example of good practice –
Know the Datum, Spheroid, Projection
Geographical coordinates Projected coordinates
with system description with system description
Latitude: 57o 30’ 12.12” N Easting (X): 452865.852 m
Longitude: 002o 12’ 48.53” E Northing (Y): 6373837.306 m
Geodetic Datum: ED50 Geodetic Datum: ED50
Spheroid: International 1924 Spheroid: International 1924
semi-major axis: 6378388.0 m semi-major axis: 6378388.0 m
reciprocal flattening: 1/297.0 reciprocal flattening: 1/297.0
Projection zone: UTM zone 31 N
North Diagram latitude of origin: 0o N
longitude of origin: 3o E
True (Map) Grid
scale factor: 0.9996
Magnetic false easting: 500000.0 m
false northing: 0.0 m
Declination projection method: Transverse Mercator
- 5o 12’ 12.1” Convergence
8th Feb 2005 + 0o 39’ 48.2”
[Link] 59
Coordinate Representation
• Coordinates are used to define points on the chart.
• You will plot points on the chart or scale points off the chart.
• Coordinates may be represented as:-
• Grid, i.e. easting, northings
• Geographicals, i.e. degrees, minutes, seconds
• Grid coords- Grid reference frame
• Geographical coords – Graticule reference frame
[Link] 60
30
Grid Coordinates
Example – 617000mE, 6136250mN
Beware Scale
Not always north-up
[Link] 61
Geographic Coordinates
Example – 58° 00’ N, 1° 05’ W
Beware Scale not same in both axis
Scale may change across chart
[Link] 62
31
Geographical Representation
• Geographical coordinates can be expressed in many ways
• Variation on the use of sexagesimal DMS (degrees, minutes, seconds) notation
• 1 circle = 360° (degrees)
• 1 degree = 60’ (minutes)
• 1 minute = 60” (seconds)
• E.g.
• 56° 30’ 45” N, 32° 25’ 36” E DMS
• = 56° 30.75’ N, 32° 25.60’ E DM.m
• = 56.5125° N, 32.4266°E [Link]
[Link] 63
Summary / Reminder
Planned well at coordinates 100-300 m Actual well at coordinates
lat=57°
lat=57°00’
00’00”
00” N, lon=1
lon=1°°00’
00’00”
00”E lat=57°
lat=57°00’
00’00”
00”N, lon=1
lon=1°
°00’
00’00”
00”E
(European system) (GPS coordinate system)
Oil/gas
[Link] 64
32