International Management: Managing Across

Borders and Cultures

Chapter 4
Communicating Across Cultures
Learning Objectives
4.1 To recognize the communication process and how cultural differences can
cause noise in that process
4.2 To appreciate the cultural variables that affect communication for both the
sender and the listener
4.3 To be aware of the impact of IT on cross-border communications
4.4 To learn how to manage cross-cultural business communications
successfully
Opening Profile: The Impact of Social Media
on Global Business
Opening Profile: The Impact of Social Media on Global Business

This article describes how managers in international businesses are grappling

with the question of how to benefit from social media networks. Networks, such
as Facebook are directly and indirectly linking people and business around the
world. Facebook, for example, had 2.4 billion monthly users around the world as
of the 4th quarter 2019. Social media users worldwide increased from 0.97 billion
to an estimated 2.82 billion over the period 2010 to 2019. Social media are
potential sources of rich information outside of the normal chain of
communication. Measuring the effectiveness of each source of social media is a
challenge. Regardless of how companies interact with and use social media
networks, it is clear that they are here to stay, that they can have considerable
impact on global businesses, and that they are impacting political and social
trends as well.
Learning Objective 4.1
TO RECOGNIZE THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND
HOW CULTURAL DIFFERENCES CAN CAUSE NOISE IN
THAT PROCESS
The Communication Process
Exhibit 4-1
The Communication Process
A. Communication
[Link]: the process of sharing meaning by transmitting
messages through media, such as words, behavior, or material artifacts.
[Link] communicate to coordinate activities, to disseminate
information, to motivate people, and to negotiate future plans.
[Link], the communication process shown in Exhibit 4-1 involves
stages during which meaning can be distorted.
[Link] that serves to undermine the communication of the intended
meaning is typically referred to as noise. Noise stems from the fact that the
sender and receiver each exist in a largely private world called his or her life
space, which is based largely upon each person’s culture. The more
dissimilar the culture of the sender and receiver, the greater the noise there
is in the communication process.
The Communication Process
B. Cultural Noise in International Communication

1. Because we are concerned with cross-cultural communication, we are

concerned with cultural noise; noise introduced into the communication
process as a result of cultural differences between sender and receiver.

2. When a member of one culture sends a message to a member of another

culture, intercultural communication takes place.

3. Attribution is the process by which people look for the explanation of

another person’s behavior. According to Hall and Hall, when people do not
understand each other, they tend to blame their confusion on the other
person’s stupidity, deceit, or craziness.
Learning Objective 4.2
TO APPRECIATE THE CULTURAL VARIABLES THAT
AFFECT COMMUNICATION FOR BOTH THE SENDER
AND THE LISTENER
The Culture–Communication Link: Trust in
Communication
The meaning of trust and how it is communicated vary across societies
When there is trust between parties, implicit understanding arises within
communications
Guidelines:
◦ Create a clear and calculated basis for natural benefit
◦ Improve predictability
◦ Develop mutual bonding
II. The Culture-Communication Link
A. Trust in Communication
1. Cultural gaps can be overcome by prior learning and understanding of those
variables and how to adjust to them.
2. Effective communication, and therefore effective collaboration in alliances
across national boundaries, depends on the informal understandings among the
parties that are based on the trust that has developed between them
II. The Culture-Communication Link
3. Trust provides many benefits including minimizing problems
caused by cultural differences, adjusting to unforeseen
circumstances with less conflict, and facilitating open
communication.

John Child suggests the following guidelines in cultivating trust:

a. Create a clear and calculated basis for mutual benefit.

b. Improve predictability by striving to resolve conflicts and
keeping communication open.
c. Develop mutual bonding through regular socializing and
friendly contact.
II. The Culture-Communication Link
B. Trust in the Digital Age

1. The global consulting firm Accenture defines digital trust as “the

confidence placed in an organization to collect, store, and use the digital
information of others in a manner that benefits and protects those to whom
the information pertains.” The digital age has reshaped the way companies
communicate with customers around the world.

2. Accenture stresses four pillars of digital trust in order to develop trust with
consumers regarding a brand:
• Security (e.g., virus protection and data encryption)
• Accountability (e.g., global and regional data standards)
• Privacy (e.g., company data policies and third-party data sharing)
• Benefit/Value (e.g., customer value, brand value)
II. The Culture-Communication Link
C. The GLOBE Project provides insight into culturally-appropriate
communication styles and expectations for managers.
Here are the key observations:
• People in societies ranked high on performance orientation present objective
information in a direct and explicit way. However, when dealing with people
low on performance orientation (e.g., Russia or Greece), use a more indirect
approach.
• When communicating with people low on assertiveness, use a friendly
approach.
• For those high on the humane dimension, avoid conflict and communicate in a
supportive manner.
D. Cultural Variables in the Communication Process
1. It is also useful to be aware of cultural variables that can affect the
communication process by influencing a person’s perceptions.
II. The Culture-Communication Link
2. Some of these variables have been identified by Samovar and Porter and
discussed by Harris and Moran. These variables are as follows:

• Attitudes: ethnocentric attitudes are a particular source of noise in cross-cultural

communications.
• Stereotyping: when a person assumes that every member of a society or subculture
has the same characteristics or traits.
• Social organization: our perceptions can be influenced by differences in values,
approach, or priorities relative to the kind of social organizations to which we
belong
• Thought patterns: the logical progression of reasoning varies across cultures.
• Roles: societies differ considerably as to what they consider the role of a manager.
• Language: can be a barrier to communication when one party has difficulty
understanding the other’s language, when there is a lack of understanding of local
idioms through a failure to understand body language, or from using poor or faulty
translations.
II. The Culture-Communication Link
3. More than just conveying information, language also conveys
cultural and social understandings from one generation to the next.
4. International managers need a good command of the local language
or competent interpreters. The direct translation of specific words does
not assure the conveyance of meaning.
For example, in Asian culture the word “yes” means only that I have
heard you. Politeness, the desire to say only what the listener wishes to
hear, adds a noise to the communication process.
II. The Culture-Communication Link
Under the Lens: Communicating in India—Languages, Culture,
Customs, and Etiquette
India has a population of over 1 billion people with an extremely diverse
ethnic and linguistic composition. Although Hindi is the official language
of India there are many other languages— some of which enjoy official
status but many that do not. Hindu culture has given India the caste
system and a strong sense of hierarchy, and family is extremely
important. Indians find it difficult to say “no” directly. Here is a large
Muslim population in India whose naming customs and eating customs
vary from the Hindu majority. Business in India is built on relationships
which are built on mutual trust and respect. Indians are non-
confrontational in negotiations, and expect concessions. Business attire
should be conservative, and business cards are exchanged. As India is a
hierarchical society, titles are revered so “Doctor” or “Professor” should
appear on your card.
Map of India
Figure 4-2
II. The Culture-Communication Link
E. Second Language Use
1. A large number of business professionals speak more than one
language. As a result, there are circumstances in which they will
communicate with their counterparts in a nonnative language, in
particular the English language. English is used frequently as a language
for business professionals.
2. When communicating with a business professional who is less skilled
at speaking a second (or third) language, the native language speaker
needs to communicate without complex terms.
Under the Lens: Native English Speakers Must
Learn How They Come Across
Those who don’t speak English as a first language struggle at work
Non-native speakers are at a disadvantage when emotions come into play
English speakers use linguistic mastery to dominate
A failure to understand how you come across diminishes your impact
Forms of Nonverbal Communication
Exhibit 4-3
Facial expressions; eye contact
Body posture; interpersonal distance (proxemics)
Body contact; touching
Clothing, cosmetics, hairstyles, jewelry
Paralanguage
Attitude toward time
Color symbolism
Food symbolism and social use of meals
II. The Culture-Communication Link
F. Nonverbal communication (body language):
1. Behavior that communicates without words. Studies have shown that
subtle nonverbal messages account for 65 to 93 percent of interpreted
communication. The media for nonverbal communication can be
categorized into four types: (1) kinesic, (2) proxemics, (3) paralanguage,
object language. (See Exhibit 4-3)
2. Kinesic behavior refers to body movements—posture, gestures, facial
expressions, and eye contact. Although such gestures may be universal,
their meanings are culturally specific.
3. Oculesics refers to the behavior of the eyes during communications.
Subtle differences in eye behavior can throw off a communication badly if
they are not understood. For example, during speech Americans will look
right at you, whereas the British will look away.
4. Proxemics deals with the influence of proximity and space on
communication including personal space and office space or layout.
II. The Culture-Communication Link
4. High-contact and low-contact cultures: High-contact cultures prefer a close
sensory involvement; e.g., prefer to stand close and touch a great deal. Low-contact
cultures prefer less sensory involvement.

There is a correlation between Hofstede’s measure of individualism and cultural

contact: low-contact cultures are more individualistic, high-contact cultures are more
collectivist.
5. Paralanguage is the meaning conveyed by how something is said as a result of the
rate of speech, the tone and inflection of voice, and other noises, laughing or
yawning and so on.
6. Object language (or material culture) refers to how we communicate through
material artifacts or design.
 Context in communication
High-Context Cultures Low-Context Cultures
Feelings and thoughts are not Personal and business
explicitly expressed; key relationships are more
information is embedded in the compartmentalized,
context communication has to be more
explicit. Feelings and thoughts
are expressed in words
 Under the Lens: Communicating Italian
Style

Italians use the most body language when communicating

Italians make about 250 gestures when talking and doing other things such as
conversing on the cell phone
Gestures are culture-specific, varying according to the area in Italy
Italians tend to be gregarious, loud, and interrupt one another
II. The Culture-Communication Link
Under the Lens: Communicating Italian Style
Italians use the most body language when communicating; they seem
to be walking down the street mumbling while their hands are going all
over wildly, typically while on their telefonini. In fact, it is difficult for the
person listening on the phone to interpret sometimes because the
speaker’s hand gestures and other nonverbal signals are invisible. Their
hands convey much meaning. Gestures can convey that the person feels
pride, or shame, or desperation, or fear, giving more meaning than the
words alone. Gestures are culture-specific. Flirtatious behavior from
Italian men is common and part of their culture. Italians tend to be
gregarious and loud but interrupt one another anyway. They are
uncomfortable with silence. People from reserved cultures such as the
British will likely be perceived as disinterested by Italians since they
tend to be very emotionally engaged with the conversation.
Management In Action: A Guide to
Miscommunication
The Anglo-Dutch guide lists phrases that are misunderstood when the
English and Dutch talk to each other
Linguistic gaps remain widespread but tend to be ignored
The more institutions become globalized, the more subtle distinctions
in speech patterns matter
II. The Culture-Communication Link
Management in Action: A Guide to (Mis)communication
A document called the “Anglo-Dutch translation guide” lists phrases that are
commonly misunderstood when English and Dutch people talk to each other.
For example, take the expression “with all due respect.” If you are British,
you interpret this to say, “I think you are wrong.” But if you are Dutch, used
to blunt speech, you think it means, “You are listening to me!” It is not that
these linguistic gaps remain widespread today, but how they are ignored in
the office. It is easy to think that you can communicate with almost anyone
online since so many companies use English. However, the more that
institutions become globalized, the more these subtle distinctions in speech
patterns matter. Meyer suggests managers at multinational companies should
use matrix planners that plot the position of different cultures on the “context”
spectrum, to help them interpret each other. She also argues that everyone
needs to keep international communication ultra “low context” – i.e. to spell
everything out, as clearly as you can.
Comparative Management in Focus:
Communicating with Arabs Exhibit 4-5

Arabs are quick to “sound off”

Communication is built on friendship, honor, hospitality, religion
Arabs are high-contact communicators
Time is the key in communication process: deadlines are considered rude and
pushy
 II. The Culture-Communication Link
Comparative Management in Focus: Communicating with Arabs
In the Middle East, the concept of communication is more implicit and interwoven, and, therefore, harder
for Americans to understand. The Arabic language supports a broad emotional range. Eloquence and
flowery speech are admired for their own sake. At the core, the culture values friendship, religion, and
hospitality. Friends and family are very important, as is the concept of honor. Women have very little role
in business or entertainment. Most Arab countries are high-contact cultures. Their business culture is
better understood when one understands bukra insha Allah—“tomorrow if Allah wills.” Arab logic is less
linear; they are more likely to meander toward a solution.
Some useful suggestions for doing business in the Middle East are:
1. Be patient—take the time needed to build relationship and trust.
2. Relationships matter more than the job.
3. Avoid expressing doubts or criticism when others are present.
4. Adapt to the norms of body language.
5. Expect many interruptions in meetings, delays in schedules, and changes in plans.
II. The Culture-Communication Link
H. Communication Channels
1. In addition to the variables of the sender and receiver of the message, there are
also variables associated with channel choice (including fast or slow messages and
different types of media).
2. Information Systems: Communication in organizations varies according to where
and how it originates, the speed at which it flows, and whether it is formal or
informal. In high-context cultures, information may spread rapidly and freely because
of the frequent close contact and implicit ties between people in the organization.
Speed of Information: Americans expect to give/receive information very quickly and
clearly while French use slower message channels of deep relationships.
3. Americans are very self-disclosing—they will talk about anything. This is not so
with the Japanese, who employ a more implicit communication style. The Japanese
also value a ningensi (“human beingness”) style of communication that encompasses
humanity, reciprocity, and an underlying distrust of words and analytic logic.
Exhibit 4-6 presents differences in Japanese and American communication styles.
Learning Objective 4.3
TO BE AWARE OF THE IMPACT OF IT ON CROSS-
BORDER COMMUNICATIONS
Managing Cross-Cultural Communication (1 of
2)

Develop cultural sensitivity

◦ Anticipate the meaning the receiver will get

Careful encoding
◦ Use words, pictures, and gestures
◦ Avoid slang, idioms, regional sayings

Selective Transmission
◦ Build relationships, face-to-face if possible
Managing Cross-Cultural Communication (2
of 2)
Careful decoding of feedback
◦ Get feedback from multiple parties
◦ Improve listening and observation skills

Follow-up actions
IV. Managing Cross-Cultural
Communication
A. Steps in the development of effective intercultural communication include the
development of cultural sensitivity, careful encoding, selective transmission, careful
decoding, and appropriate follow-up.
B- Developing cultural sensitivity
[Link] acting as a sender, a manager must make it a point to know the receiver and
to decode the message in a form that will most likely be understood as intended.
This requires awareness on the manager’s part of his or her own cultural baggage.
[Link] sensitivity (discussed in Chapter 3) is really just a matter of understanding
the other person, the context, and how the person will respond to the context.
C- Careful encoding
[Link] translating his or her intended words into symbols for cross-cultural
communication, the sender must use words, pictures, or gestures that are
appropriate to the receiver’s frame of reference. Senders should avoid idioms and
regional sayings (e.g., go fly a kite). Literal translation is only a limited answer to
language differences. Language translation is only a part of the encoding process; the
message is also expressed nonverbally.
IV. Managing Cross-Cultural
Communication
D. Selective transmission
[Link] type of medium chosen for the message depends on the nature of the
message, its level of importance, the context and expectations of the receiver, the
timing involved, and the need for personal interaction, among other factors.
2. For the most part, it is best to use face-to-face interaction for relationship building
or for important transactions. Personal interactions give the manager the
opportunity to get immediate verbal and visual feedback and to make rapid
adjustments in the communication process.
E. Careful decoding of feedback
1. Timely and effective feedback channels can also be set up to assess a firm’s
general communication about the progression of its business and its general
management principles
[Link] is the process of translating the received symbols into the interpreted
message. The main causes of incongruence are (1) the receiver misinterprets the
message, (2) the receiver encodes his or her return message incorrectly, or (3) the
sender misinterprets the feedback.
IV. Managing Cross-Cultural
Communication
F- Follow-up actions
[Link] communicate both through action and inaction. To keep open lines of communication,
managers must follow through with action on what has been discussed and then agreed upon—
typically a contract, which is probably the most important formal business communication.
[Link] management of cross-cultural communication depends largely on a manager’s personal abilities
and behavior. The behaviors associated through research with intercultural communication
effectiveness are listed below:
Respect
Interaction posture
Orientation to knowledge
Empathy
Interaction management
Tolerance for ambiguity
Other-oriented role behavior
Learning Objective 4.4
TO LEARN HOW TO MANAGE CROSS -CULTURAL
BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS SUCCESSFULLY
Developing Cultural Sensitivity (1 of 2)
Read a map: Familiarize yourself with the local geography to avoid making
insulting mistakes
Dress up: In some countries, casual dress is a sign of disrespect
Talk small: Talking about wealth, power, or status-corporate or personal-
can create resentment
No slang: Even casual profanity is unacceptable
Slow down: Americans talk fast, eat fast, move fast, live fast. Many cultures
do not
Developing Cultural Sensitivity (2 of 2)
Listen as much as you talk: Ask people you’re visiting about themselves and
their way of life
Speak lower and slower: A loud voice is often perceived as bragging
Religious restraint: In many countries, religion is not a subject for public
discussion
Political restraint: Steer clear of this if someone is attacking U.S. policies,
agree to disagree
Facilitating Intercultural Communication
Openness
◦ Open mindedness, tolerance for ambiguity, and extrovertedness

Resilience
◦ Having an internal locus of control, persistence, a tolerance for ambiguity, and
resourcefulness
Conclusion
Cultural sensitivity
Awareness of potential sources of cultural noise
Culture is the foundation of communication
◦ High context versus low context
◦ Careful encoding and selective transmission
◦ Cultural localization on the Internet
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