HARDWARE

Computer hardware refers to the physical components that make up a computer system. This
includes devices like the central processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM), storage drives,
motherboard, power supply, and input/output peripherals such as keyboards and monitors.
Hardware works together to perform computing tasks, process data, and enable users to
interact with software applications.

The main physical parts of a computer are;

● I/O devices – also known as peripheral devices and are used for entering data or
displaying information
● Motherboard – holds all internal and is used for supply of electricity and data
● Processor – is used in processing of raw data into useful information
● Memory chips – mainly used for temporary holding of data while being processed
● Secondary storage devices – for more permanent storage for files

Von-Neumann architecture
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES
Input devices
An input device in a computer is any piece of hardware that sends data to the computer, allowing you
to interact with and control it. The data may be in the form of text, commands, images, audio, or video.

● Keyboard

A keyboard is an input device used for keying in commands.

It has various categories of keys and each category of keys on a keyboard serves distinct functions that
enhance user interaction with a computer. Understanding these categories and their respective
functions can improve efficiency and productivity in various tasks.
Keyboard Functions: Categories of Keys

1. Alphanumeric / character Keys

- Letters (A-Z): Used for typing text.

- Numbers (0-9): Input numeric data.

2. Modifier Keys

- Shift: Capitalizes letters and accesses secondary functions of keys.

- Ctrl (Control): Used in combination with other keys for shortcuts (e.g., Ctrl+C for copy).

- Alt (Alternate): Used for alternative commands and keyboard shortcuts.

- Fn (Function): Accesses additional functions on function keys or controls hardware features (e.g.,
volume, brightness).

3. Function Keys (F1-F12)

- Each function key may have specific commands depending on the software (e.g., F1 for help, F5 for
refresh in browsers).
- Often used in combination with Ctrl, Alt, or Shift for additional functions.

4. Navigation Keys

- Arrow Keys: Move the cursor or selection in various directions.

- Home/End: Move to the beginning or end of a line or document.

- Page Up/Page Down: Scroll through documents or webpages.

- Insert: Toggles between insert and overwrite mode.

- Delete: Removes the character or selected item.

5. Editing Keys

- Backspace: Deletes the character to the left of the cursor.

- Enter/Return: Executes commands or creates a new line/paragraph.

- Tab: Indents text or moves to the next field in forms.

6. Special Character Keys

 - Space Bar: Inserts a space between words.

- Punctuation Keys: Include symbols like !, @, #, $, %, etc., used in text input.

7. Numeric Keypad

- A section on the keyboard, typically on the right, used for quick numeric entry.

- Contains numbers, arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /), and functions like Num Lock.

8. System Keys

- Print Screen (PrtSc): Captures a screenshot of the current screen.

- Scroll Lock: Historically used for scrolling through text in some applications.
- Pause/Break: Often used to pause a process or script.
- Escape (Esc): Exits or cancels operations and closes menus.

Pointing devices
These are devices that are used for pointing at the screen and they include; mouse, stylus, joystick, light
pen etc.

● Mouse

A mouse is a handheld input device used to interact with a computer as pointing device
It allows users to control the cursor on the screen, facilitating navigation and selection of items.

Earlier versions of it were built over a small palm-size box with a round ball at its base, which tracks the
movement of the mouse and feeds digital signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Currently, the mouse has a sensor at the bottom to detect cursor position.

● Joystick

Just like a mouse, a Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to travel the cursor position on a
display. It is a perpendicular stick having a spherical ball at both lower and upper ends. The spherical
ball connected at the circuit having sensors moves in a socket. The joystick controller can be traversed
in all directions.

The functionality of the joystick is just like a mouse. Its applications are generally in Computer-Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

● Light pen

Just like a pen, a light pen is a digital pointing device. This device is used to select an item displayed in
the menu or to draw anything on the display. It contains a photocell and an optical sensor placed in a
small tube at the tip.

When the light pen tip is traveled on the display, its photocell sensing element calculates the screen
location and sends the digital signal to the CPU.

● Track Ball

The trackball is another type of input device similar to the mouse. It is most helpful with a notebook or
laptop computer, instead of a mouse. It consists of a ball on the top which is half inserted and
connected to the sensors. By moving fingers on the ball, the cursor can be moved.

Because the whole device is not moved to move the cursor, a trackball requires less space as compared
to the mouse. This device comes in different shapes like a ball, a square, or a button.

Scanning devices
● Flatbed scanner
A scanner is an input device, which captures high-resolution images from analogue source like paper
which are then converted into a digital format that can be saved on the disk and shared digitally.

It can be used when some information on paper is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer in
digital format for further manipulation. These digital images can be edited before they are printed.

● Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

A Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR) is a specialized device used to read and process documents
that contain magnetic ink characters.

Magnetic Ink contains iron oxide particles, allowing the characters to be read by the device. It is
primarily employed in the banking and financial sectors for tasks like processing cheques.

Advantages:

Speed: Allows for quick processing of large volumes of checks. Accuracy: Reduces errors in data entry

compared to manual methods.

Security: The use of magnetic ink makes the characters harder to alter or counterfeit.

● Optical Character Reader (OCR)

It is an input device that is used to read a printed text from paper.

It is similar to the scanner, but the method of reading and the type of output generated is different.
The format to be fed to the OCR is predefined and can’t be used as an ordinary scanner. OCR, unlike a
scanner, scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine-readable digital
code instead of creating high-resolution images, and stores the text on the system memory.

● Barcode Reader

Bar Code Reader is an input device used to read special format barcoded data (data in the form of light
and dark lines).

Barcoded data is commonly used to create price tags, in labeling goods, numbering the books, etc. It
can be a handheld scanner or can be embedded in a stationary scanner on the tabletop.

A flash of light from the device strikes the surface of the object and reflects the sensors present behind
the source of light to collect the input. Bar Code Reader can only scan a bar code image, converts it into
an alphanumeric value, which is then transferred to the computer that the bar code reader is connected
to.

● Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner is used to identify the type of mark made by pen or pencil.

It is used where one out of a predefined alternative is to be selected and marked. The format to be fed
to the OMR is predefined and can’t be used as an ordinary scanner. It is specially used for automation of
the answer sheet analysis of examinations having multiple-choice questions.

● Biometric Devices

It is an input device used to recognize and differentiate special biological features. Biometrics relates to
a method in which a person is identified through his/her biological features such as fingerprints, facial
structure, eye cornea, etc. It is done by using biometric devices, which can be of different types based
on their scanning features and abilities, such as Face Scanner, Hand Scanner, Fingerprint Scanner,
Retina or Iris Scanner, Voice Scanner, etc.

Others;
● Digitizer

A digitizer is also an input device that is used to convert analog information into digital form. Using a
digitizer, the signal from the television or camera can be transformed into a series of numbers that
could be saved in a computer hard drive. They can be helpful with the computer to create a picture of
whatever the camera has been pointed at.

Digitizer is also called Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it transforms graphics and pictorial data into
binary inputs to the system. A special kind of graphic tablet as a digitizer is used for fine works of
drawing and image-related applications.

● Microphone

A microphone is a very common input device used to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

Nowadays microphones are used in almost every industry and devices related to sound recording or
transmission. The microphone is used for different applications like adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music, voice calling and recording, video conferencing, and more.

Output devices
An output device is any piece of hardware that receives data from the computer. Usually, this data is
used to display information to the user in some form.

1. Monitor/Display Screen

Monitors or Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the primary output devices of a computer system. It
generates images from tiny dots, termed pixels that are arranged in a well-defined rectangular form. The
depth and sharpness of the image depend upon the number and size of the pixels.
There are two main types of monitors;
- Thin Film Transistors (TFT)- which includes Liquid Crystal display (LCD), Light Emitting Diode
(LED), QLED, OLED
- Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT)

2. Printer
A printer is a very commonly practiced output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:

 Impact Printers
  Non-Impact Printers

a) Impact Printers

Impact printers work by physically striking an ink ribbon against the paper to create characters or
images.

Examples of impact printers

● Dot Matrix Printers

How They use a grid of tiny pins that strike an inked ribbon against the paper, forming characters
through a series of dots.

Advantages
- Can print multi-part forms (carbon copies).
- they are generally cheaper
- Robust and durable; can handle harsh environments.
- Good for printing on multipart forms and labels
Disadvantages
- Noisy operation.
- Lower print quality compared to non-impact printers.
- -Slower print speed compared to non-impact alternatives.
- -Ink ribbons can be costly over time.

●Line Printers
They print an entire line of text at once, using a series of hammers or chains of characters.
They are divided into chain printers and drum printers.
Advantages
- Extremely fast for high-volume printing.
-Reliable and durable for continuous operation.
-Often used in bulk printing environments (e.g., data centers)
Disadvantages
- Limited graphic capabilities.
- Often large and heavy
- High maintenance requirements and noise levels.

● Daisy wheel printer

A daisy wheel printer is a type of impact printer that uses a rotating wheel with characters
embossed on its "petals" to create text output. It's known for producing high-quality,
typewriter-like text, but is slow and cannot print graphics or change fonts without swapping the
daisy wheel. A daisy wheel is a circular disk with characters arranged around its circumference.
The printer rotates the wheel to position the desired character in front of an inked ribbon, a
hammer then strikes the character, pressing it against the ribbon and transferring the image
onto the paper. This process is repeated for each character to form the text.

b) Non-Impact Printers
Non-impact printers create images without physically striking the paper. They utilize various
technologies to produce text and graphics.

Types of non-impact

● Inkjet Printers

They work by spraying tiny droplets of liquid ink onto the paper through microscopic nozzles.

Advantages

- High-quality color printing.

- Compact and affordable suitable for small workspaces.
- Excellent color quality and detail; ideal for photos and graphics.
- Versatile; can print on various media types (e.g., photo paper, labels).

Disadvantages

- Slower than laser printers.

- Ink can smudge if not allowed to dry well
- Slower printing speed compared to laser printers.
- Ink cartridges can be expensive, and frequent replacements may be needed.
- Print heads can clog if not used regularly, leading to maintenance issues.

● Laser Printers

They use a laser beam to create an electrostatic image on a drum, which attracts toner and transfers it
to the paper.

Advantages

- Fast printing speeds especially for text

- Cost-effective for high-volume printing.
-High-quality output with sharp text and graphics.
 -Cost-effective for high-volume printing; toner lasts longer than ink.
-Generally, more reliable and requires less maintenance than inkjet.
Disadvantages
- Higher initial cost compared to inkjet.
- Limited color range (although color laser printers are available).
-Bulkier than inkjet printers, requiring more space.
-Toner cartridges can also be expensive

● Thermal Printers

They use heat to transfer ink from a ribbon to the paper or directly heat special thermal paper.
Advantages
- Quiet operation and fast printing.
- Compact size, often used for receipts.
-Compact and portable; often used in mobile printing solutions.
-Low maintenance as fewer moving parts are involved.

Disadvantages
- Limited durability of printed documents (fades over time).
- Requires specific thermal paper.
- Not suitable for high-quality images or documents.
- Continuous use can lead to overheating issues

Impact printers are suited for high-volume tasks where noise and print quality are less of a concern,
while non-impact printers excel in quality and versatility, catering to a wider range of printing needs.
 IMPACT PRINTERS

Dot Matrix Printers Line Printers Daisy Wheel Printers

NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

Inkjet Printer Laser Printers Thermal Printers

2. Speakers/Headphones

speakers/headphones receive audio as input either in analog or digital form and generate sound as an
output. With the advancement of technology, speakers are now available with wireless and Bluetooth
facilities as well

3. Projector

A projector is an optical device that displays images or videos onto a surface, typically a screen or wall,
by projecting light through a lens

4. Plotter

A plotter is a computer output device that is primarily used to produce high-quality drawings, designs,
and graphics. It is different from other printers as it uses one or more pens or markers to draw
continuous lines on paper or other suitable materials, rather than using dots or pixels to create images.

5. Braille Reader

A Braille reader is a computer output device designed for individuals with visual impairments,
specifically those who read Braille. It enables them to access digital information by converting text into
Braille characters that can be read by touch.
 MOTHERBOARD
The motherboard is the primary circuit board in a computer, serving as the central hub that
connects all the hardware components. It enables communication between the CPU, memory,
storage devices, and peripheral devices, allowing them to work together seamlessly.
This board contains various slots, sockets, and connectors to accommodate critical hardware.
The CPU is installed into a dedicated socket designed specifically for the processor type.
Memory modules, such as RAM sticks, fit into DIMM (Dual In-line Memory Module) slots,
allowing for quick access to data needed during processing. Expansion slots like PCIe (Peripheral
Component Interconnect Express) allow users to add additional components such as graphics
cards, sound cards, or network adapters or SSDs, enhancing the system’s capabilities.
Components like the Compact Disc drive and HDD are connected to the SATA (Serial Advanced
Technology Attachment) port.
At the heart of the motherboard lies the chipset, a set of integrated circuits responsible for
managing data flow between the processor, memory, storage, and input/output devices. The
chipset controls communication speeds, power management, and ensures that data is
efficiently routed to the appropriate components. Additionally, the motherboard includes
various ports and connectors for external devices, such as USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports,
audio jacks, Ethernet connectors, and display outputs, facilitating interaction with peripherals
like keyboards, mice, monitors, and printers.
The motherboard also distributes power from the power supply unit (PSU) to all connected
components via power connectors. It includes BIOS (Basic Input Output System) or UEFI
(Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) firmware chips that initialize hardware during startup
and provide a user interface for system configuration. Overall, the motherboard is a complex
and vital component that integrates all hardware elements.
 PROCESSOR
In a computer system, processing refers to the execution of instructions that transform input
data into useful output. It follows the loop Fetch instruction -> Decode -> Execute. While the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the primary processor, modern computers often include
several specialized processors designed to handle specific tasks more efficiently such as
Graphical Processing Unit (GPU) and The Neural Processing Unit (NPU)/Tensor Processing Unit
(TPU)

CPU
The CPU is the central processing unit in a computer. It takes in the information, determines what to do
with it, and translates the data into binary so it can be understood by the other parts of the computer.

It is the brain of the computer, responsible for executing instructions and processing data. It works by
fetching instructions from memory, decoding them to understand what needs to be done, and then
executing the required operations—such as arithmetic, logic, or data movement. This cycle, known as
the fetch-decode-execute cycle, happens millions or even billions of times per second, enabling the
computer to run programs and respond to user input.

Modern processors are built using nanometer-scale semiconductor technology, with millions
to billions of microscopic transistors packed into a single chip. These transistors act as
electronic switches that control the flow of data and electricity.

CPUs are made from silicon which is abundantly found in sand. The CPU fabrication process
begins with purified silicon, which is shaped into wafers. A complex sequence of
photolithography, etching, doping, and layering is used to build microscopic transistors and
circuits on these wafers. Each layer is carefully aligned and patterned using ultraviolet light
through masks. Once all layers are complete, the wafer is tested, cut into individual chips
(called dies), and packaged for installation into devices. The entire process involves extreme
precision and takes several weeks to complete.

Parts of the CPU

CPU is divided into ALU, Control unit, memory unit (Registers, cache)
ALU

ALU stands for the arithmetic and logic unit. This unit is responsible for mathematical, logical,
and decision operations. This unit is divided into two main parts or groups of functions. The
arithmetic portion completes the mathematical operations including addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. The logic portion completes operations comparing, selecting,
matching, and merging data and information. The ALU can have multiple designs, and some
are more powerful and efficient than others.

Control Unit

The control unit (CU) is the director of operations. This is where the input is read and
interpreted. It sends data to the ALU, memory unit, and other locations as needed. It
translates things into binary in order to store them and sends instructions to many different
output devices. The control unit is the coordinator of all input and output devices. It transfers
data and instructions to other parts of the CPU.
Registers

Registers are small storage units inside a Central Processing Unit (CPU) that hold data,
instructions, and the current status of the processor. They are an essential part of any
computer system, as they enable the CPU to execute tasks quickly and efficiently.
Uses of registers

1. Storing the results of arithmetic and logical operations

2. Controlling the flow of data between the CPU and main memory
3. Keeping track of the program counter (PC), which determines the next instruction to be
executed
4. Managing the status of the CPU, such as detecting errors or identifying the current mode
of operation
Types of registers
Registers can be broadly classified into two categories, depending on their function and

purpose:

1. General-Purpose Registers

[Link]-Purpose Registers

[Link]-purpose registers are versatile storage locations that can be used by any instruction
in the CPU. These registers are employed for a wide range of functions, such as holding
operands and results of arithmetic and logical operations, and providing temporary storage for
data transfer between the CPU and main memory.

[Link]-purpose registers are designed for specific control tasks within the processor.
Examples of special-purpose registers are:

a. Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the next instruction to be executed

b. Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction being executed

c. Stack Pointer (SP): Points to the top of the stack in memory, used for managing function
calls and parameter passing

d. Status Register (SR): Contains flags that indicate the state of the CPU, such as zero, carry,
or overflow flags
Cache
The cache is a type of RAM that stores a few instructions and data, which the computer reuses
when required. It reduces the time required to fetch a small amount of data. Instead of
fetching data from RAM, the CPU fetches data from the cache memory, reducing the overall
time for executing instructions. It also stores data temporarily for later use.

Buses

A bus works like a link between the processors and different components of the computer
system. They help send signals and data from the processor to different devices. There are
three different types of buses.

a) The data bus sends actual data from the processor to the components

b) The address bus sends the memory address from the processor to other components.

c) The control bus, which sends control signals from the processor to other devices.

GPU
The GPU is specialized for parallel processing, especially for rendering graphics and images.
Unlike the CPU, which handles a few tasks at a high clock speed, GPUs handle multiple tasks
simultaneously, making them ideal for 3D rendering, gaming, video editing, and machine
learning. GPUs can be integrated (built into the CPU) or dedicated (a separate graphics card).
Unlike CPUs which typically have 2 – 24 cores, GPUs are usually packed with hundreds to
thousands of cores, but with lower clock speeds. They usually perform matrix calculations in
order to map data onto pixels on the screen.
 NPU
NPUs and TPUs designed specifically to accelerate AI and machine learning tasks, particularly
those involving neural networks. NPUs are optimized for matrix and tensor operations, which are the
core of deep learning computations. They excel at handling large volumes of data in parallel, far
beyond what a CPU or GPU can do efficiently such as image recognition, natural language
processing, voice assistants, object detection etc.

Apart from the CPU, GPU and TPU, there are also other processing chips that are on the
motherboard, these are the North bridge and the South Bridge. The Northbridge is connected
to components with a higher data transfer speed such as the RAM and PCI unlike the south
bridge which is connected to other less data-hungry components such as the USB and SATA for
HDDs. North Bridge is also referred to as the Memory Controller Hub while Southbridge as I/O
Controller Hub
In 2009, due to advances in technology, Intel introduced the Platform Controller Hub (PCH), a
single-chip chipset architecture that replaced the older Intel Hub Architecture. This new design
consolidated the functions of the traditional northbridge and southbridge chips into a single
component and was first implemented in the Intel 5 Series.
What Makes A CPU Good?

Here are a few features that make an excellent CPU:

Clock speed

The clock speed of a CPU is how many instructions a CPU manages in seconds and shows how
fast a computer runs. This speed identifies how quickly the CPU can retrieve and interpret
instructions.
Typically, CPU speed gets measured in gigahertz (GHz) or megahertz (MHz). A CPU clock's
speed reflects the total number of clocks cycles a CPU performs in one second. The higher the
clock speed, the higher the CPU's processing power.

Cores
Instead of using a single-core processor, most CPUs are dual cores or quad cores. In a multi-
core processor, manufacturers fit multiple CPUs on one chip. Typically, the more cores in a
process, the faster the CPU. Such multi-core processors are helpful for gamers, video editors
and customers who use demanding applications.

Hyper-threading
 This increases the CPU's performance and speed. It is a technological advancement that empowers a
single-core processor to perform like two. In the hyper-threading process, the CPU divides its physical
core into two virtual cores. It also divides workloads for simultaneous processing.

For example, we can compare two Intel CPUs. From the comparison, the i9-13900H clearly outperforms
the i5-5200U and can clearly handle more difficult tasks such as simulations, gaming, video editing and
software development.

MEMORY
Memory is an electronic holding section for the instructions and data which a computer
demands to reach quickly.
Memory is also seen as one of the primary functions of a computer because, without it, a
computer would not be able to function accurately. It is divided into RAM and ROM
 SRAM

DRAM

Memory hierarchy, speed increases as you move up while size increases as you move downwards.

RAM
RAM (Random Access Memory) is an internal read/write memory used by CPU for holding
working data, program, and program results while the machine is on.
As soon as the machine is powered off, data is dumped therefore RAM is volatile.
Your computer can access RAM memory much faster than data on a hard disk, SSD, or other
long-term storage device, which is why RAM capacity is critical for system performance.
The two main types of RAMs are static random-access memory (SRAM) and dynamic random-
access memory (DRAM). Typically, SRAM is used for the cache and internal registers of a CPU
while DRAM is used for a computer's main memory.
Both types of RAMs use the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET,
MOS-FET, MOS FET, or MOS transistor) technology which is a type of field-effect transistor
(FET), most commonly fabricated by the controlled oxidation of silicon. It has an insulated
gate, the voltage of which determines the conductivity of the device.

Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)

SRAM is a type of RAM that stores data continuously as long as power is on.
Data is stored in transistors and requires a constant power flow. Because of the continuous
power, SRAM doesn’t need to be refreshed to remember the data being stored. SRAM is called
static as no change or action i.e. refreshing is not needed to keep the data intact. It is used in
cache memories. SRAM is mostly found in Registers and Cache which have to transfer data
quickly.

Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)

DRAM is a type of RAM that keeps refreshing in order to store data. DRAM is called dynamic as
constant change i.e. refreshing is needed to keep the data intact.
It is a type of semiconductor memory that stores each bit of data in a memory cell made up of
a tiny capacitor and a transistor, typically using metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS)
technology. This ability to change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be used
for amplifying or switching electronic signals. In most designs, the capacitor holds an electric
charge to represent binary values: a charged state indicates a 1, and a discharged state
indicates a 0.
Since the electric charge on the capacitor leaks over time, DRAM needs a refresh circuit that
periodically recharges the cells to maintain data integrity. This need for constant refreshing is
what defines DRAM as "dynamic," distinguishing it from SRAM, which doesn't require
refreshing.
Difference between SRAM & DRAM

● SRAM will hold its data permanently in the presence of power, while data in DRAM
decays in seconds and thus must be periodically refreshed.
● SRAM is faster than DRAM but it is more expensive in terms of silicon area and cost.
● SRAM is used for the cache and internal registers of a CPU while DRAM is used for a
computer's main memory.
● SRAM uses less power than DRAM
● SRAM uses transistors while DRAM uses capacitors

ROM
ROM stands for Read-Only Memory. The memory from which the data can be read-only but
rewriting it is not possible. This kind of memory is non-volatile.

The data is stored permanently in such memories at the time of manufacturing. ROM is
typically used to store firmware, which is the low-level software that helps boot up a
computer or device and controls its basic functions. A ROM holds such instructions that are
needed to turn on a computer. This process is called a bootstrap.
ROM plays a crucial role in initializing hardware, running diagnostic tests during startup, and
loading the operating system's basic components. It ensures the system has the essential
instructions needed to start functioning every time it’s powered on.

Types of ROM

● PROM (programmable read-only memory)- Can be written once after manufacturing.

● EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) - Can be erased using UV light and
reprogrammed.
● EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM) - Can be erased and rewritten
electrically.
● Masked ROM.

Masked ROM (MROM)

The early ROMs were hard-wired instruments that consisted of a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These types of ROMs are called masked ROMs, which are comparatively inexpensive.

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

PROM is a type of read-only memory that can be amended only once by a user. The user buys an
empty PROM and inputs the required data using a PROM program. It consists of the small fuses inside
which are burnt open during programming. It is possible to program this memory only once and is not
erasable.

Erasable & Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

It is possible to erase EPROM by exposing it to ultraviolet light for a period of up to 40 minutes. Normally,
an EPROM eraser performs this operation. An electrical charge is stored in an insulated gate region while
programming. The charge is held for more than 10 years as there is no leakage path.

To erase this charge, ultraviolet light is passed via a quartz crystal window (lid). This process of
exposure to UV light dissipates the charge. The quartz lid is hidden with a sticker during normal usage.

Electrically Erasable & Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

EEPROM can be programmed and erased using electricity. It is possible to erase and reprogram it about
ten thousand times. Erasing or programming, both take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond) time. In
EEPROM, any desired location can be separately erased and programmed.

It is possible to erase EEPROMs at the rate of one byte at a time, instead of erasing the entire chip all at
once. That is why the technique of reprogramming is quite flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM

● Non-volatile.
● Cannot be randomly changed.
● More affordable than RAMs.
● Simple to test.
● More reliable than RAMs.
● Static and do not demand refreshment.

BIOS
BIOS was an example of EEPROM flash memory chip which has boot firmware stored in it and
performs the most low-level operations. It was connected to the southbridge through the SPI
or LPC bus. When a computer is turned on, it runs the start-up routines which are Power On
Self-Test (POST) and BOOT.
During POST, the BIOS does a self-test on itself and all the hardware components that are
connected. It starts by sending data to the CPU registers then performs a checksum. On most
bios the tests performed & their order would be roughly like:

● CPU
● BIOS ROUTINES
● KEYBOARD CONTROLLER
● CMOS RAM
● CHIPSET
● DMA CONTROLLER
● ADDRESS LINES
● FIRST 64KB OF RAM
● VIDEO ROM
● KEYBOARD
● REAL TIME CLOCK
● MOUSE
● SYSTEM BUS
● OPTION ROMS
During this stage, errors can be communicated using beeps or blinking lights, such as when
there is no RAM stick therefore even the screen won’t turn on and the video adapter won’t be
initialized. If boot is successful, the BIOS copies itself to the RAM and runs from there. In
current systems like the 32bit and 64bit, the operating system uses its own device drivers
instead.
After the POST test, the BIOS then runs the BOOTSTRAP process. This can be a warm boot or
cold boot. During warm boot, some tests are not run, such as memory above 64kb. It stores
data temporarily in the CMOS chip in order to know whether it is a cold or warm boot.
During boot process, it then checks for the boot device which usually has the operating system.
SECONDARY STORAGE
Secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage or external memory, is a type of data
storage that provides non-volatile, long-term storage for computer systems.

Unlike primary storage (e.g., RAM) which is directly accessible by the Central Processing Unit
(CPU) and is volatile, meaning it loses data when the computer is switched off, secondary
storage retains data even after the system is powered down.

Key Characteristics of Secondary Storage Devices

Various types of secondary storage devices exist, each with their unique features and
attributes. However, some key characteristics are common among these devices:

● Non-volatile: Secondary storage devices do not lose data when the computer is
powered off, ensuring that information is kept intact over time.
● Slower data access: Compared to primary storage, secondary storage devices generally
have slower read and write speeds, as data transfer is not as direct or immediate.
● High capacity: As mentioned earlier, secondary storage devices provide a larger storage
space for a wide range of data types and file sizes.
● Cost-effective: Per unit of storage, secondary storage devices are generally less
expensive than primary storage, making them a more economical option for extensive
data storage

Types of Secondary Storage

There are three primary categories of secondary storage devices based on the mechanism of
storing data: magnetic, optical, and solid-state

a. Magnetic Secondary Storage Devices

Magnetic secondary storage devices utilize magnetism to store and access data on magnetic
media. This category covers a broad range of devices, including hard disk drives (HDDs),
magnetic tapes, and floppy disks.

Hard Disk Drive (HDD): HDDs are the most prevalent type of magnetic storage devices,
predominantly used in desktop computers and servers
Inside the HDD, one or more spinning disks (platters) are coated with a magnetic material. A
read/write head moves across the surface of these platters to read data from or write data to
them.

When data is written, the head magnetizes tiny areas on the disk surface to represent binary
1s and 0s. When reading, the head detects the magnetic patterns. The platters spin at high
speeds (5,400 to 7,200 RPM), and an actuator arm positions the head with great precision. The
head floats just nanometers above the surface of the spinning platters without actually
touching them, due to an air cushion created by the disk’s rotation. The platters are divided
into concentric circles (tracks) and further split into sectors, each holding a fixed amount of
data. A disk controller manages data access, caching, error checking, and communication with
the computer's motherboard.

The entire process is controlled by the HDD's internal circuitry and firmware, allowing data to
be stored, accessed, and managed efficiently.
HDD characteristics and features include:

● High storage capacity: HDDs typically offer large storage capacities, ranging from a few
hundred gigabytes to several terabytes.
● Slower data access: HDDs have slower read and write speeds compared to solid-state
drives due to the mechanical nature of the rotating disks and moving read/write heads.
● Average reliability: HDDs are susceptible to physical damage from shocks, vibrations,
and wear over time, which could result in data loss.
● Economical: HDDs generally provide a lower cost per gigabyte of storage compared to
solid-state drives, making them an affordable option for vast storage requirements.

Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tapes are used primarily for archival storage and backup solutions.
They employ a long, thin strip of plastic tape coated with a magnetic material to store the data
in a linear fashion. Features of magnetic tapes include:

● Large storage capacity: Tapes can hold several terabytes of data, making them
appropriate for long-term storage needs and backups of vast amounts of data, such as
entire system images.
● Sequential access: Tapes are read and written sequentially, meaning accessing specific
data on a tape can be time-consuming as other data may need to be read first.
● High durability: Magnetic tapes are less susceptible to physical damage compared to
 HDDs, leading to a longer lifespan and increased reliability for long-term storage.
● Cost-effective: Tapes provide a very low cost per gigabyte of storage, making them a
budget-friendly choice for archival and backup purposes.

Floppy Disk: Floppy disks are an older form of magnetic storage that has lost popularity in
recent years due to limited storage capacity and the advent of newer storage technologies.
They consist of a thin, flexible magnetic disk encased in a plastic cover. Key features of floppy
disks include:

● Small storage capacity: Floppy disks can only hold a limited amount of data, usually up
to a few hundred kilobytes or a few megabytes at most.
● Slow data access: Due to their outdated design, floppy disks have slow read and write
speeds compared to other storage devices.
● Low reliability: Floppy disks are prone to data corruption from magnetic interference,
scratches, or dust, leading to limited dependability.
● Obsolete: Most modern computers no longer include a floppy disk drive, rendering
floppy disks practically useless in modern computing contexts.
 b. Optical Secondary Storage Devices
Optical secondary storage devices utilize laser technology to read and write data on specially
designed discs, including CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. These discs are composed of a
polycarbonate substrate coated with a reflective layer and a protective lacquer. An optical
drive is required to read and write data on these discs. Here are the key features of optical
storage devices:
Compact Disc (CD): CDs are a common type of optical storage medium, primarily used for
storing and distributing audio and software. There are several types of CDs such as CD-ROM,
CD-R, and CD-RW, each with its specific capabilities. Standard CDs have a storage capacity of
700 MB.

Digital Versatile Disc (DVD): DVDs offer higher storage capacities compared to CDs, typically
ranging from 4.7 GB to 8.5 GB. DVDs are used for storing and distributing larger multimedia
files, such as movies or computer software.

Blu-ray Disc (BD): Blu-ray discs have even higher storage capacities than DVDs, with standard
capacities ranging from 25 GB to 50 GB. They are primarily used for high-definition video
content and large multimedia files, as well as computer data storage
 c. Solid State Secondary Storage Devices
Solid-state secondary storage devices do not have any moving parts and use flash memory to
store data. This category primarily includes solid-state drives (SSDs) and USB flash drives. The
key advantage of solid-state storage is that it offers faster data access speeds and greater
reliability compared to magnetic and optical storage devices. The main types of solid-state
storage devices are:

Solid State Drive (SSD): SSDs are similar to HDDs in terms of storage capacity options but offer
much faster read and write speeds. They can be installed in desktop computers, laptops, or
external storage devices. SSDs use NAND-based flash memory to store data and are available
in various form factors, such as SATA, M.2, and U.2. Notable SSD features include:

● High-speed data access: SSDs have significantly higher read and write speeds compared
to HDDs due to the absence of moving parts.
● Greater reliability: The lack of mechanical components in SSDs makes them less
susceptible to physical damage, resulting in a longer lifespan and increased reliability.
● Energy efficiency: SSDs consume less power compared to HDDs, making them a more
energy-efficient storage option.
● Higher cost per gigabyte: While SSD prices have dropped in recent years, they still tend
to be more expensive than HDDs on a per-gigabyte basis.

USB Flash Drive: USB flash drives are small, portable solid-state storage devices that connect
to a computer via a USB port. They use NAND-based flash memory to store data and are
available in various storage capacities, ranging from a few gigabytes to more than 1 terabyte.
USB flash drive characteristics include:

● Portability: USB flash drives are lightweight and compact, making them easy to
transport and share data between computers.
● High-speed data access: Like SSDs, USB flash drives offer fast read and write speeds,
facilitating quick data transfers.
● Moderate storage capacities: While not as large as SSDs or HDDs, USB flash drives
provide sufficient storage for a variety of file types and sizes.
● Ease of use: USB flash drives are plug-and-play devices, requiring no additional software
or hardware installation to use.