OCEANOGRAPHY

Complete Master Reference Guide

Terms · Laws · Principles · Processes

Instruments · Satellites · Key Scientists
El Niño · La Niña · Gyres · Conveyor Belt · Langmuir Circulation

Prepared for Masters Admission Examination — Department of Oceanography

Covers Physical, Chemical, Biological & Geological Oceanography

 CHAPTER 1: BRANCHES & FUNDAMENTALS

1.1 What is Oceanography?

Oceanography is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the ocean — its physics, chemistry, biology, and
geology. It integrates physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and meteorology to understand the ocean
system, which covers ~71% of Earth's surface.

1.2 Four Major Branches

Branch Focus Key Topics

Physical Oceanography Motion, heat, water properties Currents, waves, tides, thermohaline circulation, sea-ice

Chemical Oceanography Composition of seawater Salinity, nutrients, dissolved gases, ocean acidification

Biological Oceanography Marine life & ecosystems Phytoplankton, food webs, primary productivity, bioluminescence

Geological Oceanography Seafloor structure & sediments Plate tectonics, MOR, trenches, sediment types, paleoceanography

1.3 Ocean Zone Definitions

Pelagic Zone: Open water; divided into epipelagic (0-200m), mesopelagic (200-1000m), bathypelagic
(1-4km), abyssopelagic (4-6km), hadalpelagic (>6km).
Benthic Zone: Seafloor and its sediments; habitat of bottom-dwelling organisms.
Continental Shelf: Gently sloping submerged land extension; depth <200 m; ends at shelf break.
Continental Slope: Steeper seaward face beyond shelf break (~200-3,000 m).
Continental Rise: Sediment accumulation at base of continental slope.
Abyssal Plain: Flat deep ocean floor (3,000-6,000 m); covers ~50% of Earth's surface.
Ocean Trench: Deepest ocean regions (>6,000 m) formed by subduction; Mariana Trench = 11,034 m.
Mid-Ocean Ridge (MOR): Continuous underwater volcanic mountain chain ~65,000 km; formed by
seafloor spreading.
Seamount: Underwater volcanic mountain rising >1,000 m from seafloor.
Guyot: Flat-topped seamount (tablemount) eroded at sea level.
Thermocline: Layer of rapid temperature decrease with depth (typically 200-1,000 m).
Halocline: Layer of rapid salinity change with depth.
Pycnocline: Layer of rapid density increase with depth; coincides with thermocline.
Mixed Layer: Surface layer (0-200 m) homogenized by wind mixing.
CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF SEAWATER

2.1 Temperature
Surface temperatures range -2°C (polar) to 30°C (tropical). Below the thermocline, deep-ocean water
remains near 2-4°C. SST (Sea Surface Temperature) is a critical climate variable measured globally by
satellites (AVHRR, MODIS, VIIRS, SLSTR).

2.2 Salinity
Average ocean salinity = 35 PSU (Practical Salinity Units). Major ions: Cl- (55%), Na+ (31%), SO42- (8%),
Mg2+ (4%), Ca2+, K+.
Marcet's Principle (1819): Relative proportions of major ions in seawater are constant regardless of total
salinity — confirmed by Dittmar (1884) using HMS Challenger samples.
PSS-78: Practical Salinity Scale based on electrical conductivity ratio; dimensionless PSU; adopted by
UNESCO.
TEOS-10: Thermodynamic Equation of State 2010; uses Absolute Salinity (SA, g/kg) and Conservative
Temperature; current standard.

2.3 Density
3 3
Seawater density depends on T, S, P. Range: 1,020-1,030 kg/m . Sigma-t = density - 1,000 kg/m at surface
pressure. Cold, salty water = denser = sinks.

2.4 Sound Speed

Sound speed ~1,480-1,500 m/s in ocean; increases with T, S, and P. SOFAR Channel = depth of minimum
sound speed (~600-1,200 m); sound trapped here travels very long distances.

2.5 Light in the Ocean (Beer-Lambert Law)

(-kz) -1
I(z) = I0 × e where k = diffuse attenuation coefficient (m ). Euphotic zone = 0-200 m (>1% surface light).
Dysphotic = 200-1,000 m. Aphotic = >1,000 m (complete darkness).
Secchi Depth: Depth of disappearance of white disk; simple measure of water transparency.
 CHAPTER 3: OCEAN CIRCULATION SYSTEMS

3.1 Global Ocean Conveyor Belt (Thermohaline Circulation / MOC)

The Global Conveyor Belt (Thermohaline Circulation, THC; also Meridional Overturning Circulation, MOC) is
the large-scale, density-driven circulation of the entire world ocean. Term popularized by Wallace Broecker
(1991).

Mechanism:
• Warm, salty surface water flows poleward (e.g., Gulf Stream → North Atlantic Current).
• In the North Atlantic (Labrador Sea, Norwegian-Greenland-Iceland Seas) and around Antarctica (Weddell
Sea, Ross Sea), surface water cools → becomes denser → SINKS — this is Deep Water Formation.
• North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) flows southward along deep Atlantic floor at ~2,000-4,000 m.
• Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) — densest ocean water — spreads northward along deepest seafloor
globally.
• Deep water slowly upwells in Indian and Pacific Oceans (diffuse upwelling).
• Full circuit takes ~1,000-2,000 years.

AMOC: Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation — Atlantic branch of THC; transports heat northward
keeping NW Europe mild; monitored continuously since 2004 by RAPID 26.5°N array.

Key Water Masses:

Water Mass Abbr T (°C) S (PSU) Origin

North Atlantic Deep Water NADW 2-4 34.9-35 Labrador & GIN Seas

Antarctic Bottom Water AABW <0 34.6-34.7 Weddell & Ross Seas

Antarctic Intermediate Water AAIW 3-7 33.8-34.5 Antarctic Convergence

Mediterranean Outflow Water MOW 6-11 >36.5 Strait of Gibraltar

North Pacific Intermediate Water NPIW 4-8 33.8-34.5 NW Pacific

3.2 Oceanic Gyres & Wind-Driven Circulation

Surface currents are primarily wind-driven. Trade winds and westerlies create large rotating current systems
called Gyres in each ocean basin. There are 5 major subtropical gyres.

Gyre Ocean Direction Western BC Eastern BC

N. Atlantic Subtropical N. Atlantic Clockwise (NH) Gulf Stream Canary Curr.

S. Atlantic Subtropical S. Atlantic Counter-CW (SH) Brazil Curr. Benguela Curr.

N. Pacific Subtropical N. Pacific Clockwise (NH) Kuroshio Curr. California Curr.

S. Pacific Subtropical S. Pacific Counter-CW (SH) E. Australian Curr. Humboldt Curr.

Indian Ocean Subtropical Indian Counter-CW (SH) Agulhas Curr. W. Australian Curr.

Western Boundary Intensification (Stommel 1948): Western boundary currents are narrow, deep, fast,
and warm due to the beta effect (variation of Coriolis parameter f = 2Ω sinφ with latitude). Eastern
boundary currents are broad, shallow, slow, and cold.
Sverdrup Balance (1947): β × V = curl(τ/ρ); links wind-stress curl to depth-integrated meridional
transport. 1 Sverdrup (Sv) = 106 m3/s.
3.3 Langmuir Circulation
Langmuir Circulation (LC) consists of counter-rotating pairs of horizontal helical vortices aligned roughly
parallel to the wind in the ocean surface mixed layer. Named after Irving Langmuir who observed and
described them in 1938.
• Mechanism: Interaction between wind-driven Ekman shear and wave-driven Stokes drift (Craik-Leibovich
/ CL theory).
• Visible as alternating foam/seaweed streaks (windrows) at the surface; spacing 5-300 m.
• Downwelling between adjacent counter-rotating vortex pairs; upwelling zones between them.
• Characterized by Turbulent Langmuir Number: La = sqrt(u*/Us); La < 0.5 → LC dominates mixing.
• Critical for: upper ocean mixing, deepening of mixed layer, phytoplankton distribution, air-sea gas
exchange, vertical heat flux.

3.4 Ekman Transport & Spiral

Vagn Walfrid Ekman (1905): Wind stress causes surface water to move at 45° to the right of wind (NH) due
to Coriolis. Successive deeper layers rotate further right (NH) and decrease in speed — the Ekman Spiral.
Net Ekman Transport = 90° to the right of wind (NH) / left (SH).
Ekman Pumping: Convergence (downwelling) / divergence (upwelling) of Ekman transport; driven by
wind-stress curl. Cyclonic curl → upwelling; anticyclonic curl → downwelling.
Coastal Upwelling: Wind parallel to coast → Ekman transport offshore → cold, nutrient-rich water rises.
Occurs off west coasts: Peru, California, NW Africa, SW Africa, Somalia.

3.5 Geostrophic Flow

In ocean interior, Coriolis force balances horizontal pressure gradient: geostrophic balance. Geostrophic
velocity equations: fu = -(1/ρ)(∂p/∂y); fv = (1/ρ)(∂p/∂x). Most large-scale ocean currents are approximately
geostrophic. SSH gradients from altimetry satellites (TOPEX, Jason series) give geostrophic surface
currents.
CHAPTER 4: WAVES AND TIDES

4.1 Ocean Waves — Key Terms

Wave Height (H): Vertical distance trough to crest.
Wavelength (L): Horizontal distance between successive crests.
Wave Period (T): Time between successive crests at a fixed point.
Phase Speed (C): C = L/T = ω/k. Deep water: C = sqrt(gL/2π). Shallow water: C = sqrt(gd)
(non-dispersive).
Significant Wave Height (Hs): Average of highest 1/3 of waves; standard operational wave height
measure.
Deep-Water Wave: Depth > L/2; dispersive; orbital motion decays exponentially with depth.
Shallow-Water Wave: Depth < L/20; C = sqrt(gd); non-dispersive; particle motion elliptical.
Swell: Waves traveled far from generation area; regular, long-period.
Stokes Drift: Net forward drift of water parcels in direction of wave propagation; drives Langmuir
Circulation.
Rogue Wave: Abnormally large wave (>2× Hs); formed by constructive interference; unpredictable.
Internal Waves: Waves propagating along density interfaces (thermocline/pycnocline) inside ocean;
amplitudes 100s of m; period minutes to hours.

4.2 Tides
Tides = periodic rise and fall of sea level caused by gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun on Earth's
ocean. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation is the foundation; Laplace formalized tidal equations.

Tidal Type Definition Example Location

Semidiurnal 2 high + 2 low tides/day (~12.4 hr period) Atlantic coasts, Bay of Fundy

Diurnal 1 high + 1 low tide/day (~24.8 hr) Gulf of Mexico, SE Asia

Mixed (Semi-diurnal) Unequal successive tides; combination US Pacific coast, Indian Ocean

Spring Tides Max range; Sun-Moon-Earth aligned (new/full moon)

Universal

Neap Tides Min range; Moon at 90° to Sun-Earth line (quarter

Universal
moon)

M2 Constituent: Principal lunar semidiurnal tide (period 12.42 hr); globally dominant tidal constituent.
Amphidromic Point: Point of zero tidal amplitude; tidal wave rotates around it; determined by Coriolis +
basin geometry.
Tidal Bore: Incoming tide forms a breaking wave front in funnel-shaped estuaries; Bay of Fundy (~16 m
range), Amazon, Qiantang River (China).
DART Buoy: Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis; bottom pressure sensor + surface
buoy; global network (~60 stations) for tsunami early warning.

4.3 Tsunamis
Long-period waves generated by sudden seafloor displacement (earthquakes, landslides, volcanic
eruptions). Deep ocean: L ~200 km, T ~20 min, speed ~700-900 km/hr, height ~0.5 m (imperceptible at sea).
Shoaling near coast causes height amplification (run-up). Detected by DART buoys and coastal tide gauges.
CHAPTER 5: EL NIÑO, LA NIÑA & ENSO

5.1 ENSO Overview

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is Earth's most powerful year-to-year climate fluctuation. Involves
anomalous warming (El Niño) or cooling (La Niña) of the central/eastern tropical Pacific SST, coupled with a
seesaw of atmospheric pressure called the Southern Oscillation.

5.2 Normal (Neutral) Conditions in Tropical Pacific

• Strong easterly Trade Winds push warm water westward → Western Pacific Warm Pool (near
Indonesia/Philippines).
• Cold water upwells along South American coast (Peru / Humboldt Current).
• Thermocline tilts: shallow in east (~50 m off Peru), deep in west (~200 m near Indonesia).
• Convection (heavy rainfall) concentrated over western Pacific/Indonesia.

5.3 El Niño (Warm Phase)

El Niño = anomalous warming of central/eastern tropical Pacific SST by >0.5°C for ≥5 consecutive
overlapping 3-month periods (NOAA definition). Name means 'the boy child' — historically noted around
Christmas off Peru.

During El Niño:
• Trade winds weaken → warm water spreads eastward.
• Thermocline deepens in east → suppresses upwelling off South America → SST warms.
• Heavy rainfall shifts from Indonesia/Australia to central/eastern Pacific.
• Drought in Australia, Indonesia, SE Asia, India, NE Brazil, E. Africa.
• Excessive rainfall/flooding in Peru, Ecuador, California, parts of E. Africa.
• Weakened Indian Summer Monsoon (drought risk in India).
• Reduced Atlantic hurricane activity (increased vertical wind shear).
• Collapse of Peruvian anchovy fishery (major economic impact).
• Events occur irregularly every 2-7 years.

5.4 La Niña (Cold Phase)

La Niña = anomalous cooling of central/eastern tropical Pacific SST. Opposite of El Niño — intensification of
normal conditions.
• Trade winds strengthen → Western Pacific warm pool intensifies.
• Enhanced upwelling off South America → thermocline shallows in east.
• Enhanced rainfall over Australia, Indonesia, SE Asia, S. Asia, E. Africa.
• Drought in Peru/Ecuador, parts of S. Africa, SW USA.
• Enhanced Atlantic hurricane activity (reduced wind shear).
• Strong Indian Summer Monsoon (flood risk in South Asia).
• La Niña often follows El Niño events.

5.5 Southern Oscillation & Walker Circulation

The Southern Oscillation is the atmospheric pressure component of ENSO — a seesaw of SLP between
Darwin, Australia and Tahiti. Discovered by Sir Gilbert Walker (1920s).
 SOI (Southern Oscillation Index): Standardized SLP difference: Tahiti minus Darwin. SOI < 0 = El Niño;
SOI > 0 = La Niña.
Walker Circulation: Atmospheric overturning circulation in equatorial Pacific: rising air over warm
western Pacific, eastward aloft, sinking over cold eastern Pacific, westward return (trade winds) at
surface.
Bjerknes Feedback (1969): Positive feedback loop: weakening trades → warmer eastern Pacific →
further weakening of trades → El Niño amplifies. Named after Jacob Bjerknes.

5.6 ENSO Indices

Index Region / Definition Threshold

Niño 3.4 SST anomaly: 5°N-5°S, 170°W-120°W ±0.5°C for 5 months (ONI)

Niño 3 SST anomaly: 5°N-5°S, 150°W-90°W Traditional index

Niño 4 SST anomaly: 5°N-5°S, 160°E-150°W Central Pacific

Niño 1+2 SST anomaly: 0-10°S, 90°W-80°W Coastal S. America

ONI 3-month running mean of Niño 3.4 anomaly ±0.5°C (NOAA official ENSO definition)

SOI SLP: Tahiti minus Darwin (standardized) Negative = El Niño

MEI Multivariate: SST+SLP+wind+OLR Comprehensive measure

5.7 ENSO Dynamics — Kelvin & Rossby Waves

Oceanic Kelvin Wave: Eastward-propagating equatorial wave deepening thermocline; transmits El Niño
signal east along equator; speed ~2-3 m/s.
Rossby Wave: Westward-propagating planetary wave; key for ENSO 'memory'; reflected Kelvin waves
become Rossby waves traveling back west.
Delayed Oscillator Model: El Niño generates upwelling Rossby waves → reflect at western boundary as
upwelling Kelvin waves → terminate El Niño (Suarez & Schopf 1988).
Recharge Oscillator Model: Equatorial heat content (warm water volume) drives ENSO cycle: charging
(heat accumulates) precedes El Niño, discharging terminates it (Jin 1997).
 CHAPTER 6: IMPORTANT OCEAN CURRENTS
Current Ocean Type Key Facts

Gulf Stream N. Atlantic Warm WBC ~1-2.5 m/s; ~30-80 Sv; keeps Europe mild; 'river in the sea' (Maury)

North Atlantic Current N. Atlantic Warm Extension of Gulf Stream; warms NW Europe

Labrador Current N. Atlantic Cold Flows S along NE Canada; fog off Newfoundland

Canary Current N. Atlantic Cold EBC Coastal upwelling off NW Africa

Kuroshio Current N. Pacific Warm WBC Pacific's Gulf Stream; ~50 Sv; Japan's warm current

Oyashio Current N. Pacific Cold Flows SW off NE Japan; meets Kuroshio → rich fishery

California Current N. Pacific Cold EBC Southward; coastal upwelling; rich fishery

Humboldt (Peru) Current S. Pacific Cold EBC Strongest EBC; powerful upwelling; anchovy fishery; El Niño-sensitive

Brazil Current S. Atlantic Warm WBC Flows S along Brazil coast; relatively weak

Benguela Current S. Atlantic Cold EBC Strong upwelling; rich fishery off SW Africa

Agulhas Current Indian Warm WBC One of strongest WBCs; ~70 Sv; retroflection past S. Africa

Somali Current Indian Seasonal Reverses with monsoon; intense upwelling in SW monsoon season

Antarctic Circumpolar Current Southern Ocean Cold Only current encircling Earth; ~130-140 Sv (largest); unimpeded by land

East Greenland Current Arctic Cold Transports sea ice southward along E. Greenland

Norwegian Current N. Atlantic/Arctic Warm Branch of N. Atlantic Current; keeps Norwegian coast ice-free

WBC: Western Boundary Current: fast, narrow, warm, deep; flows poleward; intensified by beta effect.
EBC: Eastern Boundary Current: slow, broad, cold, shallow; flows equatorward; associated with coastal
upwelling.
Great Pacific Garbage Patch: Accumulation of floating plastic debris in convergence zones of North
Pacific Subtropical Gyre.
CHAPTER 7: IMPORTANT LAWS, PRINCIPLES & EQUATIONS

7.1 Physical Laws & Principles

Archimedes' Principle: Upward buoyant force = weight of fluid displaced; explains floating icebergs,
particle settling, instrument buoyancy.
Newton's Law of Gravitation: F = GMm/r2; basis of tidal forcing by Moon and Sun on ocean.
Coriolis Effect: Apparent deflection of moving objects on rotating Earth; right in NH, left in SH; f = 2Ω
sinφ (Coriolis parameter); zero at equator, max at poles.
Marcet's Principle / Dittmar (1819/1884): Major ion ratios in seawater are constant regardless of total
salinity — Law of Constant Proportions of Seawater.
Ekman's Theory (1905): Wind stress causes surface water movement at 45° to wind (NH); spiral of
current direction with depth; net transport 90° to wind.
Sverdrup Balance (1947): β × V = curl(τ/ρ); wind-stress curl drives meridional transport in ocean gyres;
cornerstone of gyre theory.
Stommel's Western Intensification (1948): Beta-effect (variation of f with latitude) explains asymmetry
between fast WBCs and slow EBCs.
(-kz)
Beer-Lambert Law: I(z) = I0 × e ; exponential attenuation of light with depth; k = diffuse attenuation
-1
coefficient (m ).
2
Stokes' Law: Terminal settling velocity of spherical particle: v = 2r g(ρp-ρf)/(9η); governs sediment
settling.
2
Richardson Number (Ri): Ri = (g/ρ)(dρ/dz)/(du/dz) ; ratio of buoyancy to shear; Ri < 0.25 →
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability → turbulent mixing.
Bjerknes Feedback (1969): Positive feedback between SST warming and trade wind weakening driving
El Niño amplification.
Redfield Ratio (1934): C:N:P = 106:16:1 by atoms in marine organic matter; also C:N:P:O2 =
106:16:1:-138 for photosynthesis/respiration stoichiometry.
Wentworth Scale: Sediment grain size: clay <4µm; silt 4-63µm; sand 63µm-2mm; gravel >2mm.
Boyle's Law: PV = const at constant T; relevant for depth-pressure effects; gas solubility in seawater
increases with pressure (Henry's Law).
Fick's Law of Diffusion: Flux proportional to concentration gradient; governs molecular diffusion of salt,
gases in seawater.
Hydrostatic Equation: dp/dz = -ρg; pressure increases ~1 dbar/1 m depth in ocean.

7.2 Key Equations Summary

Geostrophic velocity:
fu = -(1/ρ)(∂p/∂y); fv = (1/ρ)(∂p/∂x) [f = Coriolis parameter]

Wave phase speed:

C = L/T; Deep: C = sqrt(gL/2π); Shallow: C = sqrt(gd)

Significant Wave Height:

Hs = 4 sqrt(m ) [m = variance of sea surface elevation]
0 0
Acoustic speed (simplified):
 c ≈ 1449 + 4.6T - 0.055T2 + (1.34-0.01T)(S-35) + 0.016z [m/s]

Ekman transport:
Me = τ/(ρf) [90° to wind; τ = wind stress]

Stokes Drift:
Us = a2ω k e(2kz) [a=amplitude, k=wavenumber, z=depth]

Density (simplified EOS):

ρ = ρ0[1 - α(T-T0) + β(S-S0)] [α=thermal expansion, β=haline contraction]

Thermal Wind:
∂ug/∂z = -(g/fρ0)(∂ρ/∂y) [vertical shear of geostrophic current]

Sverdrup Transport:
β × V = curl(τ)/ρ [V = depth-integrated meridional transport]

Rossby Number:
Ro = U/(fL) [Ro << 1 → geostrophic balance]

Richardson Number:
2 2
Ri = N /(du/dz) [N = buoyancy frequency; Ri<0.25 = mixing]
CHAPTER 8: CLIMATE VARIABILITY & OCEAN PHENOMENA

8.1 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)

The IOD (Indian Niño) is an irregular oscillation of SST between the western and eastern Indian Ocean.
Positive IOD: warmer western IO, cooler eastern IO → drought in Australia/SE Asia, floods in E. Africa,
reduced Indian Monsoon rainfall. Negative IOD: opposite. Often co-occurs with ENSO.
DMI (Dipole Mode Index): SST anomaly: western box (50-70°E, 10°S-10°N) minus eastern box
(90-110°E, 10°S-0°N). Standard IOD measure.

8.2 Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)

Long-lived pattern of Pacific climate variability (20-30 yr cycles) resembling ENSO but on decadal scale.
Described by Nathan Mantua (1997). Positive PDO = warm NE Pacific, cool NW Pacific. Modulates ENSO
impacts on North America.

8.3 Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO)

60-80 year cycle of North Atlantic SST variability linked to AMOC strength. Positive AMO = warmer N.
Atlantic → more Atlantic hurricanes, drought in US/Sahel, wet conditions in Europe.

8.4 North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO)

Leading mode of atmospheric variability in North Atlantic — seesaw of SLP between Icelandic Low and
Azores High. Positive NAO = stronger westerlies → mild/wet NW Europe, cold/dry Mediterranean. NAO
Index = standardized SLP Azores minus Iceland.

8.5 Indian Ocean Monsoon & Reversal Currents

The Indian Ocean is unique — monsoon reversal causes complete reversal of surface currents. SW
Monsoon (Jun-Sep): northward Somali Current (only northward WBC), intense upwelling off Somalia/Arabia.
NE Monsoon (Nov-Feb): currents reverse southward. Findlater Jet = low-level atmospheric jet driving Somali
current.

8.6 Ocean Acidification

Ocean absorbs ~25-30% of anthropogenic CO . CO + H O → H CO → H+ + HCO - → pH decreases. pH
2 2 2 2 3 3
has dropped from ~8.2 (pre-industrial) to ~8.08 today — 30% more acidic. Threatens coral reefs, mollusks,
pteropods.
CCD (Calcite Compensation Depth): Depth (~4,000-5,000 m) where calcite dissolution rate equals
supply rate; no calcareous sediment below.
Lysocline: Depth (~3,500-4,000 m) where calcite dissolution accelerates; above CCD.

8.7 Sea Ice

Sea ice forms when SST drops to -1.8°C (seawater freezing point at 35 PSU). Arctic sea ice minimum
(September extent) declining ~13%/decade since 1979. Ice-albedo feedback amplifies Arctic warming 3-4×
faster than global average.
Polynya: Open water within sea ice kept ice-free by winds or upwelling; important site for deep water
formation (e.g., Weddell Polynya).
First-Year Ice (FYI): Sea ice formed in one winter; thinner (<2 m); saltier.
 Multi-Year Ice (MYI): Sea ice surviving >1 summer melt season; thicker, fresher, harder; declining rapidly
in Arctic.

8.8 Mesoscale Eddies

Eddies (50-300 km diameter, 10-100 day period) are ocean's weather systems — contain ~90% of ocean
kinetic energy. Warm-core (anticyclonic) eddies trap warm water. Cold-core (cyclonic) eddies cause
upwelling and biological productivity. Detected by satellite altimetry (SSH anomaly).
CHAPTER 9: CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

9.1 Major Dissolved Constituents of Seawater

Ion Formula % of Salts Conc. at S=35 (g/kg)

Chloride Cl- 55.04% 19.35

Sodium Na+ 30.61% 10.77

Sulfate SO4 2- 7.68% 2.71

Magnesium Mg2+ 3.69% 1.29

Calcium Ca2+ 1.16% 0.41

Potassium K+ 1.10% 0.40

Bicarbonate HCO3- 0.41% 0.14

Bromide Br- 0.19% 0.067

Memory tip — Decreasing order: Cl > Na > SO4 > Mg > Ca > K

9.2 Dissolved Gases

Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Near saturation at surface; decreases in Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ,
~200-1,000 m); increases in cold deep water. Critical for marine life.
Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ): Mid-depth zone (<0.5 mL/L O2) due to intense microbial respiration and
poor ventilation; expanding due to warming.
- 2-
Carbonate System: DIC = [CO2] + [H2CO3] + [HCO3 ] + [CO3 ]; controlled by pH and alkalinity.
- 2- -
Total Alkalinity (TA): TA = [HCO3 ] + 2[CO3 ] + [B(OH)4 ] + ...; seawater's acid-neutralizing capacity.
Revelle Factor: Ratio of fractional change in pCO2 to fractional change in DIC; determines ocean's
capacity to absorb CO2; ~8-15.

9.3 Nutrients
- 3-
Macronutrients: Nitrate (NO3 ), Phosphate (PO4 ), Silicate (Si(OH)4); limit phytoplankton growth.
Redfield Ratio: C:N:P = 106:16:1 (atoms); fundamental constant of marine biogeochemistry (Alfred
Redfield, 1934).
HNLC Regions: High Nutrient Low Chlorophyll: Southern Ocean, NE Pacific, Equatorial Pacific —
iron-limited (Martin's Iron Hypothesis, 1990).
Iron (Fe) Limitation: Iron is limiting micronutrient in HNLC regions; dust deposition is main source; iron
fertilization experiments (IRONEX, SOIREE) confirmed hypothesis.

9.4 Ocean Carbon Cycle — Two Pumps

Biological Pump: Phytoplankton fix CO by photosynthesis → organic matter sinks as marine
2
snow/fecal pellets → decomposed at depth releasing CO ; ~11 GtC/yr gross export.
2
Solubility Pump: Cold polar water has high CO solubility → sinks carrying dissolved CO (DIC) to deep
2 2
ocean; ~40 GtC/yr.
Carbonate Pump: CaCO shells sink; partially dissolves releasing CO ; counters biological pump; alters
3 2
alkalinity.
CHAPTER 10: BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

10.1 Primary Production

Gross Primary Production (GPP): Total organic matter produced by photosynthesis; ~100-120 GtC/yr
ocean.
Net Primary Production (NPP): GPP minus autotrophic respiration; ~50 GtC/yr ocean; ~50% of Earth's
total NPP.
New Production: Production using externally supplied nutrients (mainly from below mixed layer);
proportional to carbon export.
f-ratio: New production / total production; ~0.1 oligotrophic gyres; ~0.4 upwelling zones; determines
carbon export efficiency.

10.2 Phytoplankton Groups

• Diatoms: Siliceous cell walls (frustules); dominant in cold, nutrient-rich waters; major contributors to
biological pump; ~20% of global C fixation.
• Coccolithophores: CaCO3 plates (coccoliths); E. huxleyi most studied; important for carbonate pump;
reflect sunlight (visible from space as turquoise blooms).
• Dinoflagellates: Some photosynthetic, some heterotrophic; cause Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs);
bioluminescence; red tides.
• Cyanobacteria: Prokaryotic; Trichodesmium = N2-fixer in tropical seas; Prochlorococcus = most
abundant photosynthetic organism on Earth.
• Picoplankton: <2 µm; Prochlorococcus + Synechococcus; dominate oligotrophic gyres.

10.3 Zooplankton
Copepods: Dominant mesozooplankton (0.2-2 mm); most abundant metazoans on Earth; key link
phytoplankton → fish; perform diel vertical migration.
Krill (Euphausiids): E. superba critical in Antarctic food web; prey for whales, penguins, seals; >500
million tonnes in Southern Ocean.
Diel Vertical Migration (DVM): Zooplankton rise to surface at night to feed, descend to dark depths
during day; transports carbon from surface to depth (active flux ~16-40% of passive flux).
Marine Snow: Continuous shower of organic detritus (dead plankton, fecal pellets, mucus aggregates)
falling from surface; primary pathway for biological pump; velocity ~1-100 m/day.

10.4 Marine Food Web

Classical: Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Fish → Top Predators. Microbial Loop: DOM → Bacteria →
Flagellates → Ciliates → Zooplankton. Trophic efficiency ~10% (10% energy transferred to next level).
Eddington efficiency = trophic transfer efficiency.

10.5 Coral Reefs

Built by symbiosis between coral polyps and Zooxanthellae (photosynthetic dinoflagellates). Temperature
increase of 1-2°C above summer max → coral bleaching (expulsion of zooxanthellae). Ocean acidification
reduces calcification rates. Cover <0.1% of seafloor but harbour ~25% of all marine species.
 CHAPTER 11: GEOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY & SEAFLOOR

11.1 Plate Tectonics

Seafloor Spreading: New oceanic crust created at Mid-Ocean Ridges by magma upwelling; proved by
magnetic anomaly stripes symmetrical about MOR (Vine-Matthews-Morley Hypothesis, 1963).
Subduction Zone: Oceanic plate dives beneath another plate; creates trenches, volcanic arcs,
earthquakes; e.g., Mariana Trench (Pacific Plate subducting under Philippine Plate).
Transform Fault: Plates slide laterally; offset MOR segments; generate major earthquakes; e.g., San
Andreas Fault.
Hot Spot: Mantle plume creates volcanic chains independent of plate boundaries; e.g., Hawaiian Islands
(NW-SE age progression), Iceland.
Hydrothermal Vents: Hot fluid vents at spreading ridges; Black Smokers (350°C, H2S-rich); White
Smokers (cooler, Si, Ba, Ca); support chemosynthetic ecosystems independent of sunlight.
Age-Depth Relationship: Seafloor depth increases as it ages and cools moving away from MOR: z ≈
2,500 + 350√t meters [t in Ma].

11.2 Marine Sediments

Sediment Type Source Examples Where Found

Terrigenous Land erosion Clay, silt, sand, turbidites Continental margins; near rivers

Biogenous (Biogenic) Ooze

Biological remains Calcareous ooze (forams, coccoliths); Siliceous
Deep ocean
oozebasins
(diatoms,
(above
radiolarians)
CCD for calcareous)

Hydrogenous (Authigenic)Precipitation from seawater

Manganese nodules, phosphorites, evaporites,
Mid-oceanmetalliferous
areas; abyssal
sediments
plains

Cosmogenous Extraterrestrial Cosmic spherules, micrometeorites Rare; throughout ocean

CCD (Calcite Compensation Depth): ~4,000-5,000 m; calcite dissolves completely below this; no
calcareous ooze preserved.
Turbidite: Graded sediment deposit from turbidity current (underwater avalanche of sediment down
continental slope).
Contourite: Sediment drift deposited by contour-following bottom currents.

11.3 Palaeoceanography
δ18O (Oxygen Isotope Ratio): Ratio of 18O to 16O in foraminifera shells; records past ocean temperature
and ice volume; key palaeoclimate proxy.
Milankovitch Cycles: Orbital forcing: eccentricity (100 kyr), obliquity (41 kyr), precession (23 kyr); drives
glacial-interglacial cycles.
Last Glacial Maximum (LGM): ~21,000 yr BP; sea level ~120 m lower; large ice sheets in N. America
(Laurentide) and Europe (Fennoscandian).
Younger Dryas: Abrupt cooling event ~12,900-11,700 yr BP; caused by freshwater outburst from melting
ice sheets disrupting AMOC.
CHAPTER 12: OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS

12.1 Water Sampling & Profiling Instruments

CTD (Conductivity-Temperature-Depth): Workhorse of modern oceanography. Measures Conductivity
(→Salinity), Temperature, Pressure (→Depth) as lowered through water column. Accuracy: T =
±0.001°C, S = ±0.002 PSU. Deployed on rosette frame with Niskin bottles + additional sensors (O2,
fluorometer, transmissometer, PAR).

Niskin Bottle: Plastic cylinder on CTD rosette that closes remotely at a specific depth to collect water for
chemical analysis (nutrients, DIC, O2, CFCs, etc.).

Nansen Bottle: Older reversing water sampler with mercury reversing thermometers; Fridtjof Nansen
design; replaced by Niskin bottles.

XBT (Expendable Bathythermograph): Torpedo-shaped probe dropped from ship; measures T vs.
depth via wire; expendable (one-way); depth from fall rate equation. Widely used 1960s-present for T
profiles along shipping routes.

XCTD (Expendable CTD): Like XBT but measures T and conductivity (→S); more expensive; used for
rapid T/S profiling.

Bathythermograph (BT): Mechanical device recording T vs. depth on smoked glass slide; widely used
WWII onwards; largely replaced by XBT.

12.2 Current Measurement

ADCP (Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler): Measures current speed and direction throughout water
column using Doppler shift of acoustic pulses backscattered from particles/bubbles. Can be hull-mounted
(shipboard), moored, or on gliders/floats. Provides 3D current profiles.

LADCP (Lowered ADCP): ADCP mounted on CTD rosette; measures absolute currents through entire
water column during CTD cast.

HF Radar (High-Frequency): Shore-based radar measuring surface current velocities (top ~1 m) using
Bragg scattering of HF radio waves; range ~200 km; near-real-time.

Surface Drifter (SVP): Lagrangian float with 15 m drogue tracking surface currents; also measures SST;
>15,000 deployed globally since 1979; tracked by GPS/Argos.

Acoustic Tomography: Travel time of sound between moored transceivers; changes relate to T and
current averaged over large ocean volumes. Pioneered by Munk & Wunsch (1979).

12.3 Autonomous Platforms

Argo Float: Global array of ~4,000 profiling floats (2000-present). Descends to 2,000 m (some to 6,000
m), drifts 10 days, rises profiling T/S, surfaces transmitting data via Iridium/Argos satellite, descends
again. Full global coverage every 10 days.

BGC-Argo (Biogeochemical): Argo floats with additional sensors: O , pH, nitrate, fluorescence,
2
backscattering, irradiance; ~1,000 operational.

Ocean Glider: Autonomous underwater vehicle changing buoyancy to glide in sawtooth pattern; carries
CTD, ADCP, biogeochemical sensors; low power, long endurance (months). Types: Slocum, Seaglider,
Spray.
 AUV: Autonomous Underwater Vehicle; battery-powered; high speed; detailed surveys, under-ice;
examples: REMUS, HUGIN, Autosub.

ROV: Remotely Operated Vehicle; tethered; cameras + manipulators; seafloor exploration, hydrothermal
vents, deep-sea biology.

Wave Glider: Wave-powered autonomous surface vehicle; solar/wave energy; carries CTD, ADCP,
meteorological sensors.

12.4 Moored Arrays & Air-Sea Instruments

TAO/TRITON Array: Tropical Atmosphere Ocean/Triangle Trans-Ocean Buoy Network; ~70 moorings
across tropical Pacific; monitors ENSO in near-real-time; fundamental for El Niño prediction.

PIRATA Array: Pilot Research Moored Array in Tropical Atlantic; analog of TAO for Atlantic ITCZ/IOD
monitoring.

RAMA Array: Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis; Indian Ocean
monitoring.

RAPID 26.5°N Array: UK-US continuous mooring array measuring AMOC transport at 26.5°N since
2004; critical for monitoring thermohaline circulation.

DART Buoy: Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis; bottom pressure recorder + surface
buoy; ~60 stations globally for tsunami early warning.

Meteorological Buoy: Moored/drifting; measures wind speed/direction, air T, humidity, SLP, SST,
salinity.

Eddy Covariance System: High-frequency sonic anemometer + gas analyzer; measures turbulent fluxes
of heat, momentum, CO2, H2O at air-sea interface.

Thermosalinograph (TSG): Continuous SST + SSS from water pumped through ship hull underway;
provides surface T/S data along ship tracks.

12.5 Seafloor & Geological Instruments

Multi-Beam Echo Sounder (MBES): Sonar producing fan of beams; maps seafloor bathymetry in swath;
essential for seafloor mapping (GEBCO).

Sub-Bottom Profiler: Low-frequency sonar penetrating seafloor; images sediment layer stratigraphy.

Piston Core / Gravity Core: Collects long sediment cores (up to 30+ m) for palaeoceanography.

Sediment Trap: Funnel-shaped device moored at depth; collects sinking particles (marine snow);
measures particle flux and composition for biological pump studies.

Ocean Bottom Seismometer (OBS): Deployed on seafloor; records seismic waves; used to study
crustal structure and earthquakes.

PIES (Pressure Inverted Echo Sounder): Measures acoustic travel time to surface and bottom
pressure; gives integrated T/S structure and geostrophic current.

Heat Flow Probe: Measures geothermal heat flux from seafloor; used near hydrothermal systems and
spreading ridges.
 CHAPTER 13: OCEANOGRAPHIC SATELLITES

13.1 Sea Surface Temperature (SST) Satellites

Satellite / Sensor Agency Period Key Points

NOAA series + AVHRR NOAA/NASA 1978-present Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer; 4-5 channels; SST accuracy ~0.5

Terra/Aqua + MODIS NASA 1999/2002-present 36 spectral bands; SST, chlorophyll, aerosols, land; 250m-1km resolution; work

Suomi NPP + VIIRS NOAA/NASA 2011-present Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite; replaces AVHRR; 750 m resolution;

Sentinel-3A/B + SLSTR ESA 2016/2018-present Sea/Land Surface Temperature Radiometer; SST accuracy <0.3 K; dual-view g

GOES-East/West + ABI NOAA 2016-present Geostationary; near-continuous regional SST; 2 km; every 10 min refresh

Himawari-8/9 + AHI JMA 2015/2016-present Geostationary; Asia-Pacific; 10 min refresh; 2 km

13.2 Sea Surface Height / Altimetry Satellites

Radar altimetry measures distance from satellite to sea surface (SSH). Used for geostrophic currents,
eddies, tides, sea level rise, ENSO monitoring.

Satellite Agency Period Key Contribution

SEASAT NASA 1978 (99 days) First altimetry satellite; proof of concept; died early

GEOSAT US Navy 1985-1990 High-precision geodetic + repeat-track altimetry

ERS-1/2 ESA 1991-2000/95-2011 35-day repeat; SSH + scatterometer; European contribution

TOPEX/Poseidon NASA/CNES 1992-2006 Landmark mission; cm-level SSH; 10-day repeat; confirmed global sea lev

Jason-1 NASA/CNES 2001-2013 Follow-on to TOPEX; same ground track; continued sea level record

Jason-2 (OSTM) NASA/CNES/EUMETSAT

2008-2019 Operational ocean monitoring; sea level continuity

Jason-3 NASA/CNES/NOAA 2016-present Operational; near-real-time SSH data; ITRF-based

CryoSat-2 ESA 2010-present SAR/InSAR altimetry; sea ice thickness + freeboard + SSH

SARAL/AltiKa ISRO/CNES 2013-present Ka-band; finer resolution; Indian contribution to altimetry

Sentinel-6A (Copernicus) ESA/NASA/EUMETSAT2020-present Successor to Jason; open ocean + coastal; ~1 cm accuracy

SWOT NASA/CNES/CSA 2022-present 2D swath altimetry (120 km wide); first to resolve mesoscale and submeso

13.3 Ocean Color / Chlorophyll Satellites

Satellite + Sensor Agency Period Resolution / Notes

Nimbus-7 + CZCS NASA 1978-1986 825 m; first ocean color sensor; proof of concept

OrbView-2 + SeaWiFS NASA/Orbimage 1997-2010 1.1 km; defined modern ocean color era; 8 bands; chlorophyll, aerosols

Terra/Aqua + MODIS NASA 1999/2002-present 250m-1km; 36 bands; chlorophyll, SST, aerosols, land; daily global coverage

Envisat + MERIS ESA 2002-2012 300 m; 15 bands; high spectral resolution; coastal + open ocean

GCOM-C + SGLI JAXA 2017-present 250 m; SHIKISAI satellite; phytoplankton, SST

Sentinel-3A/B + OLCI ESA/Copernicus 2016/2018-present 300 m; 21 bands; open ocean + coastal; operational

HY-1C/D + COCTS NSOAS (China) 2018/2020-present 250-1100 m; Chinese ocean color series

PACE + OCI NASA 2024-present ~1 km; hyperspectral (340-890 nm); phytoplankton community composition; a
 13.4 Scatterometer (Wind) Satellites
Satellite + Sensor Agency Period Notes

ERS-1/2 + AMI Scatterometer ESA 1991-2000/11 C-band; 25 km; established routine wind monitoring

QuikSCAT + SeaWinds NASA 1999-2009 Ku-band; 25 km; key for ENSO/monsoon wind monitoring

MetOp-A/B/C + ASCAT EUMETSAT 2006-present C-band; 12.5 km; operational; best scatterometer data currently

OCEANSAT-2/3 + OSCAT/SCAT
ISRO 2009/2022-present Ku-band; 25 km; Indian contribution

HY-2A/B/C/D + HSCAT NSOAS (China) 2011-present Ku-band; 25 km; Chinese series

CYGNSS NASA 2016-present GPS Reflectometry; 8 microsatellites; hurricane winds; low latency

13.5 Sea Surface Salinity (SSS) Satellites

SMOS (ESA, 2009-present): Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity; 2D aperture synthesis L-band radiometry
(MIRAS); 40 km SSS; also soil moisture and sea ice.
Aquarius/SAC-D (NASA/CONAE, 2011-2015): First dedicated SSS satellite; 3 L-band radiometers; 150
km resolution; demonstrated feasibility of SSS from space.
SMAP (NASA, 2015-present): Soil Moisture Active Passive; passive L-band radiometer; 40 km SSS;
complementary to SMOS.

13.6 Sea Ice Satellites

Satellite + Sensor Agency Period Application

DMSP series + SSM/I DMSP/NOAA 1987-present Passive microwave; sea ice concentration; ongoing

GCOM-W + AMSR2 JAXA 2012-present 6.9-89 GHz; sea ice, SST, SSS, water vapor; high resolution

CryoSat-2 + SIRAL ESA 2010-present Radar altimetry; sea ice thickness + freeboard

ICESat-2 + ATLAS NASA 2018-present Photon-counting LiDAR; sea ice freeboard, ice sheet elevation

Sentinel-1A/B + SAR (C-band) ESA 2014/2016-present SAR; sea ice type, motion, concentration

13.7 Gravity & Bathymetry Satellites

GRACE (2002-2017) & GRACE-FO (2018-present): Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment; twin
satellites; ocean bottom pressure, freshwater storage, ice mass changes.
GOCE (ESA, 2009-2013): Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer; precise geoid
model; enables absolute ocean circulation from SSH.
Satellite Bathymetry: Global seafloor bathymetry derived from gravity anomalies (ERS-1, Geosat
altimeters); Smith & Sandwell (1997); ~7 km resolution globally — far exceeds ship survey coverage.
 CHAPTER 14: KEY SCIENTISTS & CONTRIBUTIONS
Scientist Period Key Contribution

Matthew F. Maury 1806-1873 Father of Modern Oceanography; first ocean wind/current atlases; 'Physical Geography of the Sea' (1855

Charles W. Thomson 1830-1882 Led HMS Challenger expedition (1872-76); first global systematic oceanographic survey

Victor Hensen 1835-1924 Pioneer quantitative marine biology; coined 'plankton' (1887)

Fridtjof Nansen 1861-1930 Polar explorer; invented Nansen bottle; observed Ekman spiral indirectly

Vagn W. Ekman 1874-1954 Ekman spiral theory (1905); Ekman transport; Ekman layer depth

Gilbert Walker 1868-1958 Discovered Southern Oscillation and Walker Circulation; early ENSO science

Harald Sverdrup 1888-1957 Sverdrup balance (1947); 'The Oceans' (1942); wind-driven gyre theory

William Dittmar 1833-1892 Confirmed Marcet's Principle with HMS Challenger samples (1884)

Alfred Redfield 1890-1983 Redfield Ratio C:N:P = 106:16:1; cornerstone of marine biogeochemistry

Henry Stommel 1920-1992 Western boundary intensification (1948); thermohaline circulation theory; pioneered modern physical oce

Walter Munk 1917-2019 Ocean acoustics; waves; tidal dissipation; acoustic tomography (with Wunsch); long-range forecasting

Roger Revelle 1909-1991 Ocean CO₂ uptake; Revelle Factor; revealed ocean cannot absorb all anthropogenic CO<su

Charles D. Keeling 1928-2005 Mauna Loa CO₂ record (Keeling Curve, 1958-present); proved rising atmospheric CO<sub>

Jacob Bjerknes 1897-1975 El Niño–Walker Circulation coupling; Bjerknes positive feedback (1969); ENSO dynamics

Harry Hess 1906-1969 Seafloor spreading hypothesis (1960); 'History of Ocean Basins'

Vine, Matthews & Morley 1939/1931 Magnetic anomaly stripes confirm seafloor spreading (1963); Vine-Matthews-Morley Hypothesis

Wallace Broecker 1931-2019 Global Ocean Conveyor Belt concept (1991); thermohaline circulation as climate regulator; ocean acidific

Carl Wunsch 1941- Inverse methods in ocean circulation; acoustic tomography (with Munk); ocean state estimation (ECCO)

John Martin 1935-1993 Iron Hypothesis (1990): iron limits phytoplankton in HNLC regions; 'Give me half a tanker of iron...'

Nathan Mantua 1967- Pacific Decadal Oscillation description and ENSO modulation (1997)
 CHAPTER 15: IMPORTANT FACTS & NUMBERS
Parameter Value / Key Fact

Total ocean area 361 million km<super>2</super> (~71% of Earth's surface)

Total ocean volume ~1,335 million km<super>3</super>

Average ocean depth 3,688 m

Maximum ocean depth 11,034 m — Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench (Western Pacific)

Average salinity ~34.7 PSU (commonly quoted as 35 PSU)

Average SST ~17°C globally; range -2°C to 30°C

Freezing point of seawater ~-1.8°C at S = 35 PSU

Largest ocean by area Pacific (165.25 million km<super>2</super>)

Deepest ocean (average) Pacific (average 4,028 m)

Saltiest open ocean Atlantic (~37.5 PSU average); Red Sea 40-42 PSU

Largest current (volume) Antarctic Circumpolar Current (~130-140 Sv)

Gulf Stream transport ~30 Sv surface transport; up to ~150 Sv with recirculations

AMOC transport at 26.5°N ~17 Sv (RAPID array measurement)

Sea level rise (current rate) ~3.7 mm/yr (2006-2018 satellite altimetry)

Ocean CO₂ sink ~2.5-3 GtC/yr; ~26% of anthropogenic CO₂

Ocean pH change 8.2 (pre-industrial) → 8.08 (today); 30% more acidic

Mid-Ocean Ridge total length ~65,000 km (longest mountain range on Earth)

Argo floats active (2024) ~4,000 floats globally; profiling every 10 days to 2,000 m

Photic zone depth 0-200 m (>1% surface irradiance)

THC overturning time ~1,000-2,000 years for full circuit

ENSO period 2-7 years (irregular)

Tidal range — Bay of Fundy Up to ~16.3 m (world record tidal range)

Tsunami speed (deep ocean) ~700-900 km/hr

Speed of sound in ocean ~1,480-1,500 m/s

Ocean heat absorption >90% of extra heat from global warming since 1950 absorbed by ocean

World's oldest seafloor ~180-200 Ma (NW Pacific); youngest at active MOR axes (0 Ma)

Total marine species described ~250,000; estimated 700,000-1,000,000 total

Arctic sea ice decline ~13% per decade (September minimum extent since 1979)

Coral reef coverage <0.1% of ocean floor; but ~25% of all marine species
CHAPTER 16: MAJOR PROGRAMMES & DATASETS
WOCE (1990-2002): World Ocean Circulation Experiment; comprehensive global hydrographic sections;
defined global water mass climatology.

JGOFS (1988-2003): Joint Global Ocean Flux Study; global ocean carbon cycle; biological pump
measurements.

GO-SHIP: Global Ocean Ship-based Hydrographic Investigations Programme; repeat sections every ~10
years.

Argo Programme (2000-present): Global array of ~4,000 profiling floats; backbone of operational ocean
monitoring; T/S to 2,000 m every 10 days globally.

GOOS: Global Ocean Observing System; WMO/IOC framework for sustained ocean observations.

Copernicus Marine Service (CMEMS): EU operational ocean monitoring; free global ocean reanalysis,
forecast and satellite products.

AVISO+: French altimetry data centre; merged multi-satellite sea level anomaly products.

GEBCO: General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans; best global bathymetry; currently 15 arcsec (~450 m)
resolution.

WOA (World Ocean Atlas): NOAA climatological atlas of T, S, O2, nutrients, density; standard reference
dataset.

RAPID Array (2004-present): UK-US mooring at 26.5°N; continuous AMOC transport monitoring.

OSNAP: Overturning in Subpolar North Atlantic Programme; AMOC monitoring in subpolar region.

PIRATA: Prediction and Research Moored Array in Tropical Atlantic; Atlantic equivalent of TAO.

PACE Mission (NASA 2024): Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem; hyperspectral ocean color;
phytoplankton community composition from space.

HYCOM: Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model; global operational ocean forecast model (US Navy).

NEMO: Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean; widely used in IPCC climate models.

ECCO: Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean; ocean state estimation combining models +
observations.
CHAPTER 17: EXAM TIPS, MNEMONICS & CHECKLIST

17.1 Key Mnemonics

Gyre Direction: NH subtropical gyres = Clockwise; SH subtropical gyres = Counter-clockwise. (Think:
Trade winds + westerlies drive Ekman convergence into gyre centres.)
WBC vs EBC: WBC = Warm, West, Wide (no — narrow!), Wicked fast. EBC = East, cold, broad, slow,
upwelling.
Major Ions Order: Cl > Na > SO4 > Mg > Ca > K (decreasing concentration in seawater).
THC Sinking Locations: N. Atlantic (Labrador Sea + Norwegian/Greenland/Iceland Seas) → NADW.
Antarctica (Weddell/Ross Seas) → AABW.
ENSO Quick Rule: El Niño = SOI negative, Niño 3.4 >+0.5°C, trade winds weaken, eastern Pacific
warms. La Niña = opposite of everything.
Redfield Ratio: C:N:P = 106:16:1 — memorize as '106-16-1' or 'One Hundred Six, Sixteen, One.'
Ekman Transport Direction: NH: 90° to the RIGHT of wind. SH: 90° to the LEFT of wind.
(-kz)
Beer-Lambert: I go down like beer draining: I(z) = I0 × e .

17.2 Common Exam Q&A;

Q: What drives the Global Conveyor Belt?
A: Temperature and salinity differences (thermohaline forcing) creating density-driven deep water
formation in N. Atlantic (NADW) and Antarctica (AABW), plus wind-driven upwelling in Southern Ocean
and diffuse upwelling in Pacific/Indian.

Q: Why are western boundary currents narrow and fast?

A: Western boundary intensification (Stommel 1948): the beta effect (β = ∂f/∂y) causes asymmetry in
ocean gyre vorticity budget, intensifying WBCs.

Q: What triggers El Niño?

A: Weakening of easterly trade winds → warm water shifts eastward → thermocline deepens in east →
SST warms central/eastern Pacific; amplified by Bjerknes positive feedback.

Q: Define Langmuir Circulation.

A: Counter-rotating pairs of helical vortices aligned with wind in mixed layer; Craik-Leibovich mechanism
(interaction of Stokes drift and Ekman shear); visible as windrows; critical for mixed layer mixing.

Q: What is Ekman transport?

A: Net movement of surface water 90° to the right of wind (NH) due to Coriolis + wind forcing. Used to
explain coastal upwelling, Ekman pumping, and gyre formation.

Q: Difference between AMOC and THC?

A: AMOC = Atlantic branch of global Thermohaline Circulation (THC/MOC); measures N-S overturning
circulation in Atlantic specifically (monitored at 26.5°N by RAPID array).

Q: What does a CTD measure?

A: Conductivity (→Salinity), Temperature, and Depth (from pressure). The standard oceanographic
profiling instrument.

Q: What are Argo floats?

 A: Autonomous profiling floats descending to 2,000 m, drifting 10 days, rising profiling T/S; transmit data
by satellite; ~4,000 globally; profile ocean every 10 days.

Q: El Niño impact on India?

A: Weakens Indian Summer Monsoon → below-normal rainfall → drought risk. La Niña strengthens
monsoon → above-normal rainfall → flood risk.

Q: What is the Sverdrup balance?

A: β × V = curl(τ/ρ); relates wind-stress curl to depth-integrated meridional (N-S) ocean transport.
Explains gyre transport and size.

Q: What is the Redfield Ratio?

A: C:N:P = 106:16:1 by atoms in marine organic matter. Shows N:P = 16:1 controls nutrient limitation;
universal constant in marine biogeochemistry.

Q: Name 3 major ENSO monitoring tools.

A: (1) TAO/TRITON mooring array in tropical Pacific; (2) MODIS/AVHRR satellites for SST; (3) Jason-3
altimeter for SSH/thermocline depth; plus Argo floats, XBTs.

Q: What is ocean acidification?

A: Absorption of anthropogenic CO2 → carbonic acid formation → decrease in ocean pH (from ~8.2 to
+
~8.08 since pre-industrial times; 30% increase in [H ]).

Q: What causes coastal upwelling?

A: Wind blowing parallel to coast → Ekman transport drives surface water offshore → cold, nutrient-rich
deep water rises to replace it. Best developed off west coasts (Peru, California, NW Africa, Benguela).

17.3 Final Revision Checklist

• Thermohaline Circulation: mechanism, water masses (NADW, AABW, AAIW), AMOC, RAPID array,
climate role
• El Niño/La Niña/ENSO: normal conditions, changes during each phase, Bjerknes feedback, Walker
Circulation, SOI, Niño 3.4, ONI, Kelvin/Rossby waves
• Oceanic Gyres: 5 subtropical gyres, names of WBCs and EBCs for each, western intensification
(Stommel), beta effect
• Langmuir Circulation: definition, Craik-Leibovich mechanism, windrows, role in ocean mixing
• Ekman Transport & Spiral: direction (90° right in NH), coastal upwelling, Ekman pumping, Sverdrup
balance
• Waves: deep/shallow water, phase speed, Hs, Stokes drift, internal waves, tsunami (DART buoys), wave
breaking
• Tides: types (semidiurnal/diurnal/mixed), spring/neap, M2, amphidromic point, tidal bore, Bay of Fundy
• CTD instrument: what it measures, accuracy, rosette system, Niskin bottles
• Argo floats: profile depth, drift time, data transmission, BGC-Argo
• Satellites — SST: AVHRR, MODIS, VIIRS, SLSTR; Altimetry: TOPEX, Jason-3, SWOT; Ocean Color:
SeaWiFS, MODIS, PACE; Scatterometer: ASCAT, QuikSCAT; SSS: SMOS, SMAP, Aquarius; Sea Ice:
AMSR2, CryoSat-2, ICESat-2
• Chemical Oceanography: Marcet's Principle, major ions (Cl>Na>SO4>Mg>Ca>K), Redfield Ratio
(106:16:1), carbonate system, pH, ocean acidification, OMZ
• Biological Oceanography: phytoplankton groups (diatoms, coccolithophores, Prochlorococcus), biological
pump, f-ratio, HNLC/iron limitation, DVM
• Geological: seafloor spreading, Vine-Matthews-Morley, hydrothermal vents (black/white smokers),
sediment types, CCD, Lysocline
• Climate variability: IOD (DMI), PDO, AMO, NAO — definitions and regional impacts
• Key scientists and their contributions (Ekman, Stommel, Sverdrup, Munk, Broecker, Bjerknes, Walker,
Maury, Redfield, Martin)
• Key numbers: average salinity 35 PSU, average depth 3,688 m, max depth 11,034 m, ocean covers 71%,
ACC = 130-140 Sv, sea level rise ~3.7 mm/yr

Best of Luck with Your Masters Admission Examination!

— Understand the Ocean, Understand the Planet —