Rainfed Agriculture
and Watershed Management
Rainfed Agriculture
and Watershed Management
Asha Singh
Ranvijay Pratap Singh
R. K. Jaiswal
Ritesh Bagora
Padmnabhi Tripathi
Elite Publishing House
Copyright © 2024, Elite Publishing House
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First Edition 2024
ISBN : 978-93-58997-12-5
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Contents
Preface vii
1 Rainfed Agriculture: Introduction, Types and History of 1
Rainfed Agriculture and Watershed in India
Smita Agrawal, Ayushi Trivedi, Amit Kumar
2 Factors Affecting Watershed Management 14
Ayushi Trivedi, Smita Agrawal, Amit Kumar
3 Watershed Development Projects in India 24
Ayushi Trivedi, Smita Agrawal, Amit Kumar
4 Watershed Management and Sustainable Development 36
Ayushi Trivedi and Nirjharnee Nandeha
5 Integrated Watershed Management in Rainfed Agriculture 51
Ayushi Trivedi, Smita Agrawal, Amit Kumar
6 Watershed Management and Applications of AI 60
Vinutha B B, Jyothishree K L, Shaziya K L and Hanumanta D Lamani
7 Contingent Crop Planning for Aberrant Weather Conditions 68
Vinutha B B, Shaziya K L, Paramesh naik and Hanumanta D Lamani
8 Watershed Hydrology, Management, and Modelling: A Critical 75
Approach for Sustainable Development
Vinutha B B, Hanumanta D Lamani, Shaziya K L and Paramesh Naik
9 Soil and Water Conservation Techniques 80
Sneha, M. A., Premalatha, K. and Charishma, D. S
10 Concept, Objective, Principles and Components 92
of Watershed Management
Sneha, M. A., Premalatha, K. and Meenakshi, J.
11 Crop Adaptation and Mitigation to Draught 103
Nirjharnee Nandeha and Ayushi Trivedi
12 Efficient Utilization of Water Resources through Soil 118
and Water Management Practices
Smita Agrawal, Ayushi Trivedi and Amit Kumar
13 Managements of Crops in Rainfed Area 132
Amit Kumar, Smita Agrawal and Ayushi Trivedi
14 Applications of AI in Management of Watershed 144
[Link] chandana and B. Kiruthiga
15 Soil and Climate Conditions Prevalent in Rainfed Area 158
Amit Kumar, Ayushi Trivedi, Smita Agrawal
16 Water Harvesting: Importance and its Techniques 171
Mohd Vasique Hussain
17 Contingent Crop Planning for Aberrant Weather Conditions 184
in Dryland Agriculture
Anand Dinesh Jejal
184
Chapter - 17
Contingent Crop Planning for Aberrant Weather
Conditions in Dryland Agriculture
Anand Dinesh Jejal
Department of Agronomy, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola - 444104
Email: anandjejal@[Link]
Abstract
Aberrant weather, characterized by deviations from expected patterns, is a common
phenomenon in dryland agriculture, where crop production heavily relies on seasonal
rainfall, particularly during the southwest monsoon. However, this rainfall is often
erratic, with variations in timing and distribution. Common deviations include
delayed onset, early withdrawal, and intermittent dry spells during the rainy season.
Effective crop management practices are essential to mitigate the adverse effects
of abnormal rainfall, constituting contingency planning. The primary challenge in
dryland agriculture is to minimize annual yield variations due to aberrant weather
and stabilize production.
Keywords: aberrant weather, monsoon, rainfall, crop, yield
Introduction
Dryland agriculture, covering a significant portion of arable land and agricultural
production, faces the challenge of low average crop productivity, especially with rain-
dependent kharif crops in arid and semi-arid regions. Weather variability poses the
greatest challenge in dryland crop production, with limited control over uncertainties
in rainwater availability and the unpredictable patterns of monsoon onset, duration,
and withdrawal, along with frequent dry spells. The unpredictability of monsoon
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rainfall distribution exacerbates the complexity of crop cultivation, particularly in areas
with scanty and uneven rainfall. Minimizing yearly yield variations and stabilizing
production levels are crucial goals in dryland agriculture. Strategies such as adjusting
cropping calendars, incorporating alternative crops and varieties, implementing
cropping sequences, and adopting soil moisture conservation practices and water-
harvesting techniques are vital for managing moisture stress and mitigating the
impacts of weather aberrations. Contingency crop planning provides a conceptual
framework for tailoring management practices to sustain crop productivity during
drought situations, emphasizing both long-term water conservation strategies and
in-season tactical approaches.
Strategic Approaches
Selection of crops and cropping systems
The choice of efficient crops and cropping systems depends on soil moisture and
the length of the growing season. In dryland areas, the growing season’s length is
mainly determined by moisture availability, which, in turn, relies on factors like
rainfall amounts and distribution, soil moisture storage properties, and potential
evapo-transpiration. In many arid and semi-arid regions, the crops and varieties
grown are not efficient in moisture use. They often have longer durations than the
available water period, leading to moisture stress, low yields, and sometimes complete
crop failure. The key principle for selecting crops/varieties should ensure their growth
rhythm aligns with the water availability period.
For example, green gram and moth bean require 8 weeks of growing season,
coinciding with 200 mm of rainfall. Similarly, pearl millet/cluster bean, sorghum,
and groundnut take 12, 16, and 18 weeks, respectively, to mature, with corresponding
mean growth season lengths occurring at 300, 500, and 650 mm of rainfall. Cropping
systems range from monocropping in shallow soils to double cropping in deep soils.
Adopting a suitable crop calendar by aligning critical growth phases with water
availability and atmospheric conditions improves crop transpiration efficiency and
economic yield. The mismatch between environmental rhythms (especially rainfall
patterns) and crop growth rhythms (critical phases for water needs) is a major reason
for certain crops’ unsuitability in the region..
Singh and Rao (1988) [4] suggested the following cropping system depending
on the length of growing season available:
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Length of growing period Cropping systems to be adopted
< 75 days Perennial vegetation, mixed cropping of short duration
pulses, pearl millet
75-140 days Mono-cropping of short duration pulses, pearl millet,
sorghum, maize, castor, sesame, groundnut etc.
Mono-cropping during post-rainy season with sorghum,
chickpea, mustard
140-180 days Intercropping
> 180 days Double cropping with winter sorghum, chickpea, barley,
lentil, mustard during post-rainy season
Yield reduction in continuous monoculture of crops like sorghum and green
gram is often attributed to allelopathic autotoxicity. Alternative management systems
such as crop rotation, mixed or intercropping, and multi-cropping can increase
crop productivity by mitigating autotoxicity. Mixed cropping of pearl millet with
arid legumes is a common practice in arid and hyper-arid regions. This practice not
only provides insurance against crop failure due to weather variability in dryland
agriculture but also allows farmers to enhance productivity through more efficient
utilization of land, water, and solar energy in a vertical dimension.
Crop management approaches
Crop management practices involve various strategies such as sowing crops
immediately after the onset of monsoon, establishing seedlings under sub-optimal
conditions, ensuring adequate plant stands, managing nutrients, employing proper
tillage techniques, enhancing plant characteristics, and controlling weeds, pests, and
diseases. Maintaining an adequate and uniform plant stand is crucial for optimizing
the use of rainwater and other resources. Using high-quality seeds enhances the
uniformity of crop establishment. Cultivating improved cultivars suited for dryland
conditions, characterized by early maturation and high harvest index, can lead to
higher grain yields compared to local varieties. Selecting cultivars resistant to pests
and diseases, and effectively managing them, contributes to achieving high yields
and water-use efficiency. Additionally, timely and efficient weed management is
essential for successful crop production.
Diversified farming
Transitioning from sole cropping to a diversified farming approach offers significant
advantages. It’s crucial to promote horticulture and agro-forestry, while in the western
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regions of arid lands, there’s a pressing need to prioritize grassland or biomass
development for livestock. This sector plays a vital role in sustaining individual
farmers’ economies.
Efficient rainwater management
Efficient rainwater management serves as a safeguard for crops during periods
of rainfall deficits. The key components include storing water in soil and natural
or manmade structures, as well as effectively utilizing available water resources.
Techniques that enhance infiltration, soil water storage, and reduce water loss through
runoff, evaporation, and weed use are crucial for retaining water in the soil for crop
use. Implementing practices such as off-season deep tillage, mulching, addition of
organic materials/pond sediments, inter-row cultivation, ridge and furrow system of
seeding, compartmental bunding, and graded border strips can maximize infiltration
and minimize runoff.
1. Off-season deep tillage facilitates better penetration of rainwater into the soil and
aids in weed control. However, it’s not recommended for aridisols (sandy soils in
desert regions) as it may lead to wind erosion. Deep ploughing, typically up to 22 cm
deep, performed every two to three years, can also enhance crop yield, especially in
soils with compact sub-soil layers. Additionally, deep tillage is effective for managing
perennial weeds.
2. Mulching is another effective technique for reducing soil evaporation, maintaining
soil temperature, suppressing weed growth, and improving water and nutrient
availability for plants. Various mulching materials such as crop residues, stubbles,
vegetative mulches, or dust can be used to minimize runoff and prevent soil surface
sealing caused by raindrop impact, thus promoting high infiltration rates.
3. Adding organic matter and pond sediments to the soil can reduce raindrop impact,
prevent crust formation, enhance microbial activity, and increase water retention
capacity.
4. Compartmental bunding involves creating small ridges and furrows across the
field using a desi plough or bund former at intervals of 4-5 meters. This practice
helps reduce excess rainwater runoff and promotes percolation into deeper soil layers.
5. Inter-row water harvesting is particularly suitable for light-textured soils in arid
regions. It improves soil moisture availability and conserves moisture by disrupting
capillary movement. Significant yield benefits, especially for pearl millet crops, have
been observed with the adoption of these practices.
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Tactical approaches
Since dry lands depend totally on unpredictable monsoon rains, the dry land
technology should to be equipped with contingent crop plans to avoid total failure
of crops. It is expected that under such weather aberrations, crop yields will not
be normal, but the strategy will help to get some thing or to sustain. Under such
situation, fodder for cattle becomes a problem. The contingent crop plans, therefore,
should also give serious consideration for fodder production.
There are at least four important aberrations in the rainfall behaviour
1. Early or considerably delayed onset of monsoon
2. Breaks in monsoon rains
3. Uneven distribution of monsoon rains in space and time
4. Early withdrawal of monsoon
Early or considerably delayed onset of monsoon
Commencement of rains quite early is rare. Experience revealed that the normal crops
can be planted as early as 15 days without any adverse effect. However, if pre-monsoon
rains occur much before to the normal date (>15 days), cultivars with more elasticity
should be planted. What causes concern is the delayed onset of monsoon. This type
of aberration is very frequent in the drought prone area. The onset of rainfall may be
delayed by a few days to even more than four weeks compared to the normal dates
of sowing ( Joshi and Kar, 2009) [2]. Under such situations, sowing of the crops gets
delayed. Usual crops and their varieties some times need replacement due to two
situations viz., on account of late arrival of monsoon, the length of growing season
is considerably shortened, thus require the crops/ varieties of shorter duration and
secondly, some crops get effected due to diseases e.g. downy mildew disease in late
sown pearl millet. The practices transplanting have been tried to compensate the
delay in sowing time. Some of the crops like pearl millet and finger millet can be
grown in nurseries near the source of water (e.g. village pond), and seedlings can be
transplanted after the receipt of rains. For example, sowing of pearl millet beyond
third week of July gives poor yields in the arid zone, whereas legumes like cluster
bean, green gram and moth bean give good yields under such conditions. Crops
suitable for delayed monsoon conditions have been identified for different dry land
agro-climatic regions (Venkateshwarlu et al., 1991) [5].
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Breaks in monsoon rains
Breaks in the monsoon rains can be of different durations. Breaks of shorter duration
like 5-7 days may not be a serious concern whereas, breaks of more than 15 days
duration create situation of plant water stress leading to reduction of crop production.
The stage of the crop growth at which break occurs decides the severity of damage.
Germination and crop establishment is one of the most sensitive periods when
moisture stress can have devastating effect on crop production. Poor germination
and seedling mortality may result in low and erratic crop stand. If such situation
occurs, gap filling by transplanting seedlings after the rains is an effective means
of achieving the desired plant stand. In case of crops where transplanting is not
possible, it is better to resow the crops after subsequent rains rather than having
inadequate stand in the fields. Moisture stress during crop growth stages of high leaf
area indices will have the maximum decrease in yield. Reduction in leaf area indices
by thinning of the crop mitigates the ill effects of drought to a certain extent. For
example, reduction of plant population by removing every third row was found to
be advantageous to mitigate the moisture stress. Timely weed control and use of
mulches may also be useful in extending the period of moisture availability by reducing
wasteful loss of moisture. In region where crops usually face late season or terminal
drought conditions, important options are selection of crops and cropping practices
that lead to the completion of plant life cycle before the drought induced senescence.
Selection of crops/ varieties with early anthesis ensures moisture availability during
reproductive growth under terminal drought conditions. Therefore, indeterminate
habit of crop growth is desired under dry land conditions. Further, drought may be
more pronounced on soils with limited water holding capacity (usually shallow to
medium deep soils) than with more water holding capacity (deep soils).
Uneven distribution of monsoon rains in space and time
Such situations are encountered almost every year in one or the other part of the
country during southwest monsoon leading to drought. This situation affects the
agricultural production giving instability to it. A combination of perennial crop
component in agriculture can absorb shocks because of this situation. As such
approach of Agro-forestry is important to impart stability.
Early withdrawal of monsoon
If monsoon terminates earlier than usual, it cuts the length of growing season.
Normally crops in their maturity and those growing on shallow soils suffer heavily.
Sowing of rabi crops may also get affected. It is, therefore, advisable to use short
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duration and early maturing varieties to face the situation.
Aberrant conditions and Agronomic management options
Rainfall situation Agronomic management options
1. Early onset of monsoon
Sow medium m aturing composites of pearl millet if rains
occur 15 days earlier than normal time.
▪ Use compaction device for combating crust formation
2. Delayed onset of monsoon
A. Two weeks (15 July) Use early maturing cultivars of pearl millet or mixed
cropping of pearl millet with pulses/ sesame
▪ Follow wider row spacing (60 cm) with low population
▪ Use compaction device for uniform germination
▪ Compartmental bunding in field ▪ Additional dose of 20
kg N under excessive rain during vegetative phase
▪ B. Four weeks (July End) Extra Early varieties of pearl millet should be sown or
transplanting of pearl millet seedlings or Grow short
duration sole moth bean or cluster bean
▪ Follow wider row spacing (60 cm) with low population
▪ Use compaction device for combating crust formation
Compartmental bunding
C. Six weeks (2nd week of ▪ Grow fodder Pearl millet/Sorghum
August)
3. Early season drought (Normal onset)
A. Dry spell of 15-20 days ▪ Re-plant pearl millet in between the existing rows or relay
after sowing cropping with short duration oilseed/ pulse crops ▪ Gap
filling by transplanting with rains in pearl millet ▪ Intra
row water harvesting for in situ soil moisture conservation
▪ Adoption of dust/ vegetative mulching
B. Mid season drought for 2 Reduce plant population by 25% ▪ Create weed free
consecutive weeks ▪ environment & dust/ vegetative mulching ▪ Water harvesting
tank for protective life saving irrigation at flowering
4. Terminal drought (Early withdrawal of monsoon)
▪ Provide life saving protective irrigation.
▪ Skip N top dressing in coarse cereals
▪ Reduce plant population
▪ Adoption of dust/ vegetative mulching Mulching
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