Module I

Biology - study of life Growth and development

Virology - branch of biology that studies • Organisms grow and develop following specific
viruses instructions coded for by their genes.

• Can attack living organisms, cause diseases, • These genes provide instructions that will
and even reproduce. They do not meet the direct cellular growth and development,
criteria of biologists use to define life. ensuring that young species will grow up to
exhibit many of the same characteristics as its
Virologist are not biologist parents.
Properties of life Regulation
All living organisms share several key
characteristics or function: • Organisms are complex and require multiple
regulatory mechanisms to coordinate
Order - Organisms are highly . internal functions, respond to stimuli, and
organized, coordinated structures cope with environmental stress.
that consist of one or more cells. 2 examples of internal functions regulated in
• single-celled organisms are complex: an organism
inside each cell, atoms make up 1. Nutrient transport
molecules; these in turn make up tell 2. Blood flow
organelles and other cellular
inclusions Organs - a group of tissues working
• In multicellular organisms, similar together to perform specific functions
cells form tissues. Tissues, in turn,
collaborate to create organs / body
structures with distinct function.
Homeostasis
Organs work together to form organ • The ability of an organism to maintain constant
systems. internal conditions despite of environmental
changes. (Literally, "steady state")
Sensitivity or response to stimuli
- organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For
example plants can bend toward a source of Energy processing
light, climb on fences and walls, and
respond to touch. • All organisms use a source of energy for
metabolic activities.
Chemotaxis (chemical) Tiny bacteria
can move Photosynthesis - organism capture energy from the
Phototaxis (light) toward or away sunlight and convert it into chemical energy in food.
Moving towards a stimulus - positive
Moving away - negative
Cellular respiration - use chemical energy in
molecules they take in as food.
Reproduction
Single-celled Summary
• reproduce by duplicating their DNA and
then dividing it equally as the cell prepares 1. Order
to divide to form t wo new cells 2. Sensitivity or response to stimuli
3. Reproduction
Multicellular 4. Growth and development
5. Homeostasis
• Produce specialized reproductive germline
6. Energy processing
cells that will form new individuals
• When reproduction occurs, genes
containing DNA are passed along
to an organism's offspring
Levels of organization of living things
1. Atomic Level 5. Organ System Level
• Atom : The smallest and most fundamental unit of • Organ System : A group of organs that
matter, consisting of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. work together to perform major bodily functions
(e.g., circulatory system, digestive system, ner vous
system, respiratory system, endocrine system,
• Molecule : Two or more atoms joined together by
immune system, reproductive system, skeletal
chemical bonds. system, muscular system, integumentary system,
excretory system in animals; root system and shoot
• Macromolecule : Large molecules formed by system in plants).
polymerization, typically composed of repeating smaller
units called monomers (e.g., DNA, proteins, lipids, 6. Organism Level
carbohydrates, nucleic acids).
• Organism : An individual living entity that
2. Cellular Levels can function independently (e.g., humans, plants,
animals, fungi, protists, bacteria, archaea).
• Organelle : Small structures within cells that
carry out specific functions (e.g., mitochondria, Higher Levels of Organization
chloroplasts, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, nucleus, peroxisomes).
7. Population Level
• Cell : The basic unit of structure and function in
• Population : A group of individuals of the
all living organisms. same species living in a specific geographic area
(e.g., a group of pine trees in a forest, a school of
- Prokaryotic Cells : Single-celled organisms that lack fish in a pond).
a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles (e.g., bacteria,
archaea).
8. Community Level
- Eukaryotic Cells : Cells that contain a membrane-
bound nucleus and organelles (e.g., plant cells, animal • Community : The sum of all populations
cells, fungal cells, protists). inhabiting a particular area and interacting with
one another (e.g., all trees, insects, fungi, animals,
- Viruses are not considered living organisms because and microorganisms in a forest).
they are not composed of cells and require a host cell to
reproduce. 9. Ecosystem Level
3. Tissue Level • Ecosystem : Includes all living organisms
(biotic factors) in a particular area along with the
• Tissue : Groups of similar cells that work non-living components (abiotic factors) such as air,
together to perform a common function (e.g., muscle water, sunlight, soil, temperature, and nutrients
tissue, ner vous tissue, epithelial tissue, connective (e.g., forests, deserts, oceans, grasslands, coral
tissue in animals; dermal, vascular, and ground tissue reefs).
in plants).
10. Biosphere Level
4. Organ Level
• Biosphere : The highest level of biological
• Organ : A structure composed of different organization, encompassing all ecosystems and
types of tissues working together to perform a representing all life zones on Earth, including land,
specific function (e.g., heart, lungs, brain, stomach, water, and even the atmosphere.
leaves, stems, roots in plants).
Key Concepts to Remember Introduction to the Study of
Biology
• Hierarchy Order : Atom Molecule
Macromolecule Organelle Cell Tissue 1. Understanding Life on Earth
Organ Organ System Organism Population
Community Ecosystem Biosphere. Earth from Space:
From space, Earth gives no indication of its vast
biological diversity.
• Polymerization : The process by which
monomers are chemically bonded to form
macromolecules.
Life on Earth began with microorganisms that
thrived in oceans for billions of years before
• Abiotic Factors : Non-living components more complex life forms evolved.
of an ecosystem (e.g., water, air, sunlight, soil,
temperature, minerals). 2. Timeline of Life’s Evolution:
• Biotic Factors : Living components of an Microorganisms: First life forms, dominating for
ecosystem (e.g., plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, billions of years.
protists).
Plants & Animals: Emerged later, contributing to
• Symbiosis : A close and long-term the diversity we see today.
biological interaction bet ween t wo different species
(e.g., mutualism, commensalism, parasitism). Mammals, Birds, and Flowers: Appeared 130–
200 million years ago—relatively recent in
• Homeostasis : The ability of an organism Earth’s history.
to maintain a stable internal environment despite
external changes.
Humans: Existed for about 2.5 million years.
• Adaptation : A heritable trait that Modern humans, resembling us today, evolved
increases an organism’s ability to sur vive and roughly 200,000 years ago.
reproduce in its environment.
3. The Study of Life (Biology):
• Species : A group of organisms capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. Practiced for hundreds of years, biology has
expanded into numerous fields and specialties.
• Autotrophs (Producers) : Organisms Like branches of a tree, subdisciplines in biology
that produce their own food through explore various aspects of life.
photosynthesis or chemosynthesis (e.g., plants,
algae, certain bacteria). History of Biology: Understanding how the study
of life has evolved.
• Heterotrophs (Consumers) :
Organisms that obtain energy by consuming other
organisms (e.g., herbivores, carnivores, omnivores,
Biological Diversity: Examining the wide range of
decomposers). life forms on Earth.

• Decomposers : Organisms that break

down dead organic material and recycle nutrients
back into the ecosystem (e.g., fungi, bacteria).

• Food Chain & Food Web : The flow of

energy and nutrients in an ecosystem, showing how
organisms are connected through feeding
relationships.
History of Biology 3. 18th & 19th Century Scientific
Revolution
1. Ancient Roots of Biology
Early Foundations Biology Becomes a Discipline:
• Biology has been studied since ancient
times, with roots in medicine and natural • Botany and zoology evolved into formal
history. sciences.
Key Contributors: Lavoisier and other scientists connected
biology, physics, and chemistry (e.g.,
Ayurveda (India) and Ancient Egyptian metabolism and respiration).
medicine.
Biogeography & Ecology:
Aristotle and Galen (Greco-Roman world)
made significant early contributions. • Alexander von Humboldt studied how
organisms interact with their
Middle Ages : environment, founding biogeography and
• Muslim scholars, especially Avicenna, influencing ecology and ethology.
advanced biological knowledge, blending
Greek, Roman, and Islamic traditions. Key Theories & Discoveries:
2. Renaissance & Early Modern Period Cell Theory—established cells as the
Shift Toward Empiricism: fundamental unit of life.

• Renewed focus on experimentation and Dar win’s Theory of Evolution—natural

observation during the European selection as a mechanism for evolution.
Renaissance.
End of 19th Century:
Key Figures:
• Spontaneous generation debunked.
Vesalius and Harvey—pioneers in human Rise of germ theory (linking microorganisms
anatomy and physiology. to diseases).
Linnaeus—developed the system of biological Mechanisms of inheritance still unclear.
classification (taxonomy).
Buffon—studied the diversity of life and the 4. The 20th Century: Genetics &
fossil record. Molecular Biology
Genetics Revolution:
Microscopy Breakthrough
• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek discovered the Rediscovery of Gregor Mendel’s work
world of microorganisms, paving the way on heredity.
for cell theory.
Thomas Hunt Morgan studied genetic
Natural Theology inheritance using fruit flies
• Emphasized the idea that studying nature (Drosophila).
was a way to understand the divine,
promoting the growth of natural history.
 • Ecosystem Diversity: The variety of
5. Late 20th Century to Present: ecosystems (e.g., coral reefs, rainforests, deserts)
Integration of Disciplines supporting different life forms.

Expansion of Fields: 4. How Many Species Exist?

• Rise of genomics and proteomics—studying entire • Identified species: About 1.9 million species
genomes and protein net works. have been classified by scientists.

• Organismal biology and molecular biology began to merge, • Estimated total species: Bet ween 5 million
using genetic tools to study ecological and evolutionary and 30 million species may exist, with many still
questions. undiscovered.

• New focus on the interplay bet ween genes and the • New Discoveries: Scientists continue to find
environment. new species, especially in underexplored ecosystems
The Diversity of Life like deep oceans and tropical rainforests.

1. Categorizing Life on Earth 5. Classification of Life.

• Five kingdom of life
• Living organisms can be broadly grouped into three
major categories:
1. Monera - includes all unicellular prokaryotic
organisms, meaning they lack a true nucleus and
1. Animals – Multicellular organisms that typically move and
membrane-bound organelles. It is often split into
consume organic material.
t wo distinct domains:
2. Plants – Multicellular, photosynthetic organisms that
produce oxygen and food. • Bacteria - Found everywhere, they can be
beneficial (e.g., in digestion) or harmful (causing
3. Microorganisms – Microscopic life forms, including bacteria, diseases).
archaea, protists, and some fungi.
• Archea - Often found in extreme environments
2. What is Biodiversity? (like hot springs or salt lakes) and have unique
biochemical processes.
• Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth and 2. Protista - a diverse kingdom of mostly unicellular
encompasses: eukaryotic organisms (they have a nucleus). It includes
algae, protozoa, and slime molds. Some protists are
- All living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms. autotrophic (like algae), while others are heterotrophic
(like amoebas).
- Genetic diversity: The differences in DNA among individuals and
species.
3. Plantae - includes multicellular, eukaryotic,
- Ecosystem diversity: The various ecosystems where life forms autotrophic organisms that perform photosynthesis
interact (e.g., forests, oceans, wetlands). using chlorophyll. Examples include trees, flowers,
grasses, and ferns. Plants are the primary producers in
most ecosystems.
Dynamic Nature of Biodiversity:
[Link] - Comprising multicellular, eukaryotic,
-Biodiversity is constantly changing due to:
heterotrophic organisms, animals consume organic
material for energy. They are capable of movement at
1. New genetic variations (e.g., mutations, adaptation).
some life stage and have specialized sensory organs.
2. Loss of species through extinction and habitat degradation.
This kingdom includes everything from insects and fish
to birds and mammals.
3. Levels of Biodiversity
• Genetic Diversity: Variety within species at the genetic 5. Fungi - mostly multicellular (except yeasts)
level. eukaryotic organisms. They are heterotrophic,
absorbing nutrients from decomposing organic matter.
• Species Diversity: The range of species in a particular This kingdom includes molds, mushrooms, and yeasts,
habitat or on Earth as a whole. playing key roles in ecosystems as decomposers.
 3. Microbiology
6. Importance of Biodiversity • Study of microorganisms, including
bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other
• Ecosystem Balance: Biodiversity maintains
microscopic life forms.
healthy ecosystems and supports natural
processes (e.g., pollination, nutrient cycling).
4. Ecology
• Human Benefits: • Study of the relationships bet ween
- Provides food, medicine, and materials. organisms and their environment, including
- Contributes to cultural and recreational value the interactions bet ween living things and
their physical surroundings.
• Resilience: Diverse ecosystems are more
adaptable and resilient to changes (e.g., climate 5. Genetics
change, natural disasters).
• Study of heredity, genes, and variation,
7. Threats to Biodiversity including the transmission of traits from
one generation to the next.
• Habitat Loss: Due to deforestation,
urbanization, and agriculture. 6. Biochemistry
• Study of the chemical processes that occur
• Pollution: Contaminating land, air, and within living organisms, including the
water. structure and function of biomolecules such
as DNA, proteins, and carbohydrates.
• Climate Change: Altering habitats and
species survival. 7. Molecular Biology
• Overexploitation: Overfishing, hunting,
• Study of the structure and function of
and unsustainable resource use. biomolecules, including DNA, RNA, proteins,
and other molecules that are essential for
• Invasive Species: Non-native species that life.
disrupt ecosystems.
8. Evolutionary Biology
• Study of the processes that have shaped
8. Protecting Biodiversity the diversity of life on Earth, including
evolution, natural selection, and
• Conservation Efforts: Establishing speciation.
protected areas and reserves.
9. Physiology
• Sustainable Practices: Promoting • Study of the functions and processes that occur
responsible resource management. within living organisms, including the movement
of materials, energy production, and waste
• Research & Education: Raising awareness removal.
and studying biodiversity to inform
conservation strategies. 10. Biophysics
• Study of the physical principles that govern the
Introduction to the Branches of Biology behavior of living organisms, including the
application of physical laws to biological systems.
Major branches of biology:
Forensic Science: The application of science to
1. Botany solve legal questions. Biologists, chemists, and
• Study of plants, including their structure, growth, biochemists can work as forensic scientists.
development, reproduction, evolution, classification,
and distribution. Microbiology: The study of microorganisms
(single-celled organisms).
2. Zoology
• Study of animals, including their structure, behavior, Neurobiology: The study of the nervous system.
physiology, development, evolution, classification, and
Though a branch of biology, it is part of the
distribution.
interdisciplinary field of neuroscience.
Introduction to the process of science Inductive Reasoning
Science •A logical process where specific obser vations
• A systematic approach to understanding the lead to general conclusions.
natural world through observation,
experimentation, and evidence-based Deductive Reasoning
conclusions.
•A logical process that starts with general
principles or laws to . predict specific results.
• Like other natural sciences such as geology,
physics, and chemistry, biology uses
established scientific methods to gather Descriptive vs. Hypothesis-Based Science
knowledge about the natural world. It
stands out as the study of life, encompassing • Descriptive Science: Involves observing,
everything from microscopic bacteria to exploring, and discovering. It focuses on
complex ecosystems. identifying patterns without initially
testing a specific hypothesis.
The methods of science
1. Careful observation • Hypothesis-Based Science: Begins with
2. Record keeping specific questions and proposes testable
3. Logical and Mathematical reasoning hypotheses. It aims to explain phenomena
4. Experimentation and ; through experimentation.
5. Submitting conclusions to the scrutiny
of others Hypothesis
• A proposed explanation that is
The Social Nature of Science testable and falsifiable.

Science as a Social Enterprise Prediction

• A specific outcome expected if the
• Like politics or the arts, science involves hypothesis is correct.
collaboration and communication within a
community of researchers who build upon Basic Science and Applied Science
each other’s work.
Basic Science (Pure Science)
Practical and Theoretical Science: • Research driven by curiosity and the
desire to expand knowledge without
• Applied Science: Research aimed at practical immediate practical goals. Key Term:
goals, such as disease prevention and improving Knowledge for knowledge’s sake.
public health (e.g., studying E. coli to understand
both its beneficial and harmful effects). Applied Science
• Research aimed at solving specific,
• Basic Science: Research driven by curiosity, real-world problems.
focused on expanding fundamental knowledge
without immediate practical applications. The Role of Serendipity in Science:
The Goal of Science Serendipity
• Accidental yet significant scientific
• The ultimate goal of science is to know. discoveries. Key Term: Fortunate accidents.
Scientific inquiry is driven by curiosity and a
desire to understand the world. Logical Example – Penicillin: Alexander Fleming’s
thinking, particularly through inductive unintentional discovery of penicillin highlights
reasoning and deductive reasoning, is central the importance of observation and curiosity.
to this process.
Evolution and Natural Selection:
Evolution
• The process through which species change
over time through genetic variation and
natural selection.

Natural Selection
• A mechanism where organisms better
adapted to their environment tend to
sur vive and produce more offspring.
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
- GMOs: Organisms whose genetic material has
been altered using genetic engineering techniques.

- Importance: Understanding genetics and

heredity helps evaluate the benefits and risks
associated with GMOs.

- Considerations: Health impacts, environmental

effects, and ethical concerns.

The Paleo Diet and Nutrition

Nutrition
• The process by which living organisms obtain
and use food for growth, metabolism, and
repair.

Paleo Diet
• A diet based on foods presumed to be eaten by
early humans, emphasizing whole foods and
excluding processed items.

Digestive System
• Breaks down food into macromolecules
(proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids)
that the body can absorb and utilize.

Key Takeaways
• Biological concepts like evolution, genetics,
and nutrition are directly relevant to real-world
issues.
• Understanding biology enables critical
evaluation of information on topics like GMOs,
diets, and species adaptation.

• Informed decision-making is enhanced by a

solid grasp of biological principles.