Ch-1

DC- circuit analysis

By: Arebu
Outline
• Introduction
• Electrical quantities
• Circuit Element
• Basic circuit law
• Circuit Topology
• Methods of analysis
• Circuit Theorem
• Maximum power transfer
Introduction
• An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements
• A major concern of electricity is study of the behavior of the circuit and
analyzing it.
• How does it respond to a given input?
• How do the interconnected elements and devices in the circuit interact?
• Before analysis let’s define some basic electrical quantities,
Electrical quantities
• charge,
• current,
• voltage,
• power, and
• energy
Systems of Units
• As an engineer, we deal with measurable quantities.
• Our measurement must be communicated in a standard language
that virtually all professionals can understand, irrespective of the
country where the measurement is conducted.
• Such an international measurement language is the International
System of Units (SI).
• One great advantage of the SI unit is that it uses prefixes based on the
power of 10 to relate larger and smaller units to the basic unit
Charge
• Charge (Q )is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which
matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).
Current
• Electric current (I) is the time rate of change of charge, measured
in
• amperes (A).

• Two types of Current DC and AC

• A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time.
• An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidal with
time
• Direction of current flow is conventionally taken as the direction of
positive charge movement (-ve current and +ve current)
Example
Voltage
• The voltage between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the
energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge from a to b;
mathematically,

• Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit

charge through an element, measured in volts (V).
1 volt =1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb
 Power and Energy
• Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in
watts (W).

• Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through

the positive terminal of an element and p= +vi. If the current enters
through the negative terminal, p= -vi.
+Power absorbed = -Power supplied
• law of conservation of energy must be obeyed

• Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

examples
Circuit Elements
• There are two types of elements found in electric circuits:
• passive elements and
• active elements.
• An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive
element is not.
• Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
• Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and operational
amplifiers
• The most important active elements are voltage or current sources
that generally deliver power to the circuit
Active element
• There are two kinds of sources:
• Independent and
• Dependent sources.

• An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a

specified voltage or current that is completely independent of other
circuit elements.
• An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in
which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.
• There are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:
Passive Circuit elements
• Resistor (R) an element that has ability to resist the flow of electric
current; it is measured in ohms ( ).
• Circuit representation
• Capacitor (C) :an element store electric energy in terms of electric
field , Measured in Farad(F)
• Circuit Symbol
• Inductor (L): an element that stores electric energy in terms of
magnetic field , Measured in Henry(H)
• Circuit symbol
Basic Circuit laws
• There are two fundamental laws that govern electric circuits.
• Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws

Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current i flowing through the resistor.
• Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the
resistance, R.
• The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A
depends on A and its length , p resistivity of the material in ohm-
meters.
• The value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important
that we consider the two extreme possible values of R.
• An element R=0 is called a short circuit,
• A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance
approaching zero

• An element with R= infinite is known as an open circuit

• An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance
approaching infinity.

• Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric

current; it is measured in mhos ( ) or siemens (S).
• The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R.

• We should note two things from the above equ.

1. The power dissipated in a resistor is a nonlinear function of either
current or voltage.
2. Since R is a positive quantitiy, the power dissipated in a resistor is
always positive.
Thus, a resistor always absorbs power from the circuit.
This confirms the idea that a resistor is a passive element, incapable of
generating energy.
examples
• For the circuit shown in Fig. calculate the voltage v, the conductance
G, and the power p.
Nodes, Branches, and Loops
• A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a
resistor.
• A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
• A loop is any closed path in a circuit
A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent
loops will satisfy the fundamental theorem of network
topology:

5 branches
3 nodes
3 loops
Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Kirchhoff’s law are two:
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.

• The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving the node.
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all
voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.

• KVL can be applied in two ways:

• By taking either a clockwise or a counterclockwise trip around the
loop. Either way, the algebraic sum of voltages around the loop is
zero.
• Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises
Examples
• Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig
Circuit topology
Series Topology, Parallel Circuit Topology, and others
• Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single
node and consequently carry the same current.
• Elements are in series when they are chain-connected or connected
sequentially, end to end.
• Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the
same two nodes and consequently have the same voltage across
them.
• Elements in parallel are connected to the same pair of terminals
• Elements may be connected in a way that they are neither in series
nor in parallel
Series Resistors and Voltage Division Rule
• If two resistors are in series they have the same current

The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of
the individual resistances.

The source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct

proportion to their resistances; the larger the resistance, the if a voltage divider has N resistors in series
larger the voltage drop. This is called the voltage division rule, with the source voltage v, the nth resistor
(Rn ) will have a voltage drop of
 Parallel Resistors and Current Division
• If two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have the same
voltage across them
The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the
product of their resistances divided by their sum
The general case of a circuit with N resistors in parallel. The
equivalent resistance is

The total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to

their resistances. This is known as current division rule
Notice that the larger current flows through the smaller resistance.
Examples

Find Req.
Wye-Delta Transformations
• Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither
in parallel nor in series, these can be simplified by using three-
terminal equivalent networks. These are
• The wye (Y) or tee (T) network and Delta or pi Network
Delta to Wye Conversion
• Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the
two adjacent delta branches, divided by the sum of the three delta
resistors
Wye to Delta Conversion
• Each resistor in the delta network is the sum of all possible products
of Y resistors taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor
example
• Obtain the equivalent resistance for the circuit in Fig. and use it to
find current i.
 Methods of Analysis
Nodal Analysis
• Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits
using node voltages as the circuit variables
• In nodal analysis, we are interested in finding the node voltages

The reference node is

commonly called the
ground v=0
• Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor

Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig

Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
• CASE 1: If a voltage source is connected between
the reference node and a non-reference node, we
simply set the voltage at the non-reference node
equal to the voltage of the voltage source.
• CASE 2: If the voltage source (dependent or
independent) is connected between two non-
reference nodes, the two non-reference nodes form
a generalized node or supernode; we apply both KCL
and KVL to determine the node voltages.
• A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent
or independent) voltage source connected between
two non-reference nodes and any elements
connected in parallel with it.
Example
• Find V1, V2 and V3 in the circuit using nodal analysis
Mesh Analysis
• Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing
circuits, using mesh currents as the circuit variables
• A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.
• Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit,
while mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents
• Find the branch currents I1, I2 and I3 using mesh analysis
Mesh Analysis with Current Sources

CASE 2 When a current source exists

between two meshes: Consider the circuit in
Fig., for example. We create a supermesh by
excluding the current source and any elements
connected in series with it.
A supermesh results when two meshes have a
(dependent or independent) current source in
common.
Circuit Theorems
• Engineers have developed some theorems to simplify complex circuit
analysis. Such theorems include Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems.
• Linearity Property
• A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly
proportional) to its input.
Superposition Theorem
• The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current
through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages
across (or currents through) that element due to each independent source
acting alone.
• Voltage source  short circuit and
• Current Source Open circuit
examples
• Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit
Source Transformation
• A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source
vs in series with a resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a
resistor R, or vice versa.
Example
• Use source transformation to find Vo in the circuit
Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in
series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the
terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
Finding RTh
• CASE 1 If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all
independent sources. RTh is the input resistance of the network
looking between terminals a and b,
• CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all
independent sources. As with superposition, dependent sources are
not to be turned off because they are controlled by circuit variables.
We apply a voltage source Vo at terminals a and b and determine the
resulting current io. Then , RTh=vo/io
• Thevenin’s theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It helps simplify
a circuit. A large circuit may be replaced by a single independent voltage
source and a single resistor.
Example
• Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit at terminal a and b. Then find the current
through RL=6, 16 and 36 ohm
Norton’s Theorem
• Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in
parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current
through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at
the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
Example
• Find the Norton equivalent circuit at the terminal a and b
Maximum Power Transfer
• Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear
circuit can deliver to a load
• Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance
equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTh).