Robotics and Intelligent System (AIT304) Module 2

Sensors: Sensors are devices that can sense and measure physical properties of the
environment, e.g. temperature, luminance, resistance to touch, weight, size, etc.
Transduction (engineering) is a process that converts one type of energy to another.
They deliver low-level information about the environment.
• e.g. temperature, luminance, resistance to touch, weight, size, etc.
• The key phenomenon is transduction
• Transduction (engineering) is a process that converts one type of energy to
another

Transducers and sensors: Transducer is a device that converts one type of physical
variable (eg; force, temperature, velocity, flow rate etc) into another form. Generally we
convert this to electrical voltages. The reason for this is that the converted signal is more
convenient to use and evaluate. Sensor is just used to sense the signals.

Aspect Sensor Transducer

A device that detects or senses a A device that converts one form of

Definition physical Quantity (like energy into another, usually for
temperature, force, or position). measurement or control purposes.

Converts the measured physical

Measures a physical parameter
Function parameter into a usable signal
from the Environment.
(electrical, optical, etc.).

Can be raw or unprocessed data Usually produces a standard output

Output
(not always electrical). signal (like voltage or current).

Strain gauge (mechanical strain →

Thermistor (senses temperature),
Example electrical signal), Microphone
Photodiode (senses light).
(sound → electrical signal).

Broader category; transducers can More specific; every transducer

Scope be sensors, but not all sensors are converts one energy type to
transducers. another.

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Desirable features of Sensors:

1. Accuracy should be high. How close output to the true value is the accuracy of the
device.
2. Precision There should not be any variations in the sensed output over a period of
time precision of the sensor should be high.
3. Operating Range Sensor should have wide range of operation and should be
accurate and precise over this entire range.
4. Speed of Response Should be capable of responding to the changes in the sensed
variable in minimum time.
5. Calibration Sensor should be easy to calibrate time and trouble required to
calibrate should be minimum. It should not require frequent recalibration.
6. Reliability It should have high reliability. Frequent failure should not happen.
7. Cost and Ease of operation Cost should be as low as possible, installation,
operation and maintenance should be easy and should not require skilled or
highly trained persons.

There are generally two categories of sensors used in robotics; these are for
internal purposes, and those for external purposes. Internal sensors are used to monitor
and control the various joints of the robot; they form a feedback control loop with the

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robot controller. Examples of internal sensors include potentiometers and optical

encoders, while tachometers of various types can be deployed to control the speed of the
robot arm.

External sensors are external to the robot itself, and are used when we wish to
control the operations of the robot with other pieces of equipment in the robotic work
cell. External sensors can be relatively simple devices, such as limit switches that
determine whether a part has been positioned properly, or whether a part is ready to be
picked up from an unloading bay.

Range Sensors (Proximity Sensors)

1. PIR (Passive Infrared) Sensor:

A Passive Infrared (PIR) sensor detects motion by sensing changes in infrared

(heat) radiation from objects, rather than emitting its own energy, making it "passive"
and ideal for security alarms, automatic lights, and presence detection in dark or low-
light conditions.

How it works

• Detects IR Radiation: Everything warmer than absolute zero emits infrared

radiation (heat).
• Sensing Elements: A PIR sensor has two or more sensing elements, often
split into slots.
• Initial State: When nothing moves, both slots sense the same ambient
infrared radiation from the environment (walls, room).
• Motion Detection: When a warm body passes, it first crosses one slot,
causing a sudden change (positive differential) in the signal. Then, as it

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moves away, it leaves the area, causing another change (negative

differential).
• Output: This difference in signal triggers the sensor, indicating motion,
without the sensor emitting any energy itself.
2. Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic sensors measure distance or detect objects by emitting high-frequency

sound waves (above human hearing) and timing how long it takes for the echoes to
return, using a transducer. They work in various conditions, including low light, dust, or
for transparent liquids, making them great for parking sensors, robotics, liquid level
detection, and industrial automation, by calculating distance from the time-of-flight of
sound waves.

3. LiDar

A LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) sensor is a remote sensing technology that
uses pulsed laser light to measure distances and create precise, high-resolution 3D maps
of environments by emitting laser beams and timing how long the light takes to bounce
back from objects. It works by sending out pulses of light and calculating the distance
based on the "time-of-flight," generating detailed point cloud data that represents objects
and terrain, making it crucial for autonomous vehicles, mapping, and surveying.

4. Inductive Proximity Sensor

• These are contactless sensors used for detecting metal objects. This kind of
sensor mainly depends on the induction law.
• An inductive proximity sensor detects metallic objects without physical
contact by creating an electromagnetic field, sensing changes when metal
enters it (due to eddy currents), and outputting a signal, making them

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crucial for non-contact position sensing, counting, and presence detection

in industrial automation.
• An internal coil generates a high-frequency alternating magnetic field from
the sensor's face. When a metal object approaches, eddy currents (induced
currents) form in the metal. These eddy currents draw energy from the
sensor's oscillating circuit, causing the oscillation to weaken or stop. An
evaluation circuit detects this drop in oscillation amplitude and triggers a
switching signal (ON/OFF) to indicate the metal's presence.

5. Capacitive Proximity Sensor

• These types of sensors are also contactless, used to notice both the objects
like metallic & non-metallic that includes powders, liquid, granular, etc.
This sensor works by noticing a change within capacitance.

• A capacitive proximity sensor detects objects, both metallic and non-

metallic (like plastic, wood, water, liquids), by sensing changes in its
electrostatic field, making it versatile for level sensing, counting, and
position control, even though containers. It works by using an oscillator
to create an electrical field; when an object enters the field, it changes the

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capacitance, triggering the sensor's output, and can be adjusted for

different materials and distances.

Position Sensors

• Position sensors detect an object's location (linear, angular, or 3D) and

convert movement into signals for control.
• Eg: Potentiometers, LVDTs
1. Potentiometer Sensor
• A potentiometer sensor converts mechanical movement (linear or
rotational) into a proportional electrical signal (voltage).
• A sliding contact (wiper) moves across a resistive element, altering
the electrical path; as the wiper moves, the resistance between the
wiper and one end terminal changes, creating a proportional voltage
output that represents the physical displacement.
• Linear Type or Rotary Type.

2. LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

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An LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) is an electromechanical

sensor that converts linear motion (displacement) into a proportional electrical signal,
using a movable core within a coil system based on mutual induction, offering high
accuracy for measuring position, vibration, force, and pressure in industrial automation,
aerospace, and testing.

• Works on the principle of mutual induction, converting linear displacement into

a proportional AC electrical signal by varying magnetic flux coupling.
• An AC voltage on the primary coil creates a magnetic field, which induces
voltages in two secondary coils (S1, S2).
• A movable magnetic core changes the flux linkage; at the centre (null position),
voltages in S1 and S2 are equal (zero differential output);
• Moving the core increases voltage in one coil while decreasing it in the other,
creating a differential output whose magnitude and phase indicate the
displacement's distance and direction from the centre.

Tactile Sensor
• Used to determine whether contact is made between sensor and other object.
• Tactile sensors provide the robot with the capability to respond to contact forces
between itself and other objects within its work volume.
• Tactile sensors can be divided into two types:
1. Touch sensors (micro switch)
2. Stress(Force) sensors (Strain Gauge)
1. Touch Sensor
• A touch sensor is an electronic sensor used in detecting and recording physical
touch. Also known as tactile sensors.

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• A touch sensor works like a switch, where when there’s contact, touch, or
pressure on the surface of a touch sensor, it opens up an electrical circuit and
allows currents to flow through it.

Capacitive touch sensor

• The user applies touch on the glass panel
• Your body, being conductive, stores electrical charge. When you touch the
sensor, you draw a tiny current, altering the electrical field and increasing the
capacitance.
• Multiple touch points can be detected.
Eg: Smart Phones
Resistive touch sensor
• Resistive touch sensor measures touch through responding to the pressure
applied to their surface.
• The user applies pressure against the surface.
• Resulting in voltage changes. The voltage changes are then compared to the
starting voltage, allowing for the point at which the touch took place to be
calculated.
• Not multi touch capable
• Eg: Musical instruments
2. Force Sensor
• They react to the applied force and transform its value into a quantifiable value.
• In force-sensing resistors, a conductive polymer sheet changes resistance when
force is predictably applied to its surface.
• The applied force can be determined by measuring how much the resistance
values of force-sensing resistors vary.

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• Mechanism: Force applied to the rubber sheet causes deformation, which

changes how light is reflected internally within the acrylic board.
• Components: A light source illuminates the acrylic board, and a camera captures
the reflected light patterns.
• Data Capture: The camera sends the image data to a computer display, where the
pattern of white dots (representing contact points) is analysed along the X and Y
axes to determine the force characteristics.
• Application: This method provides a low-cost solution for interactive devices and
tactile displays, allowing for the measurement of force, texture recognition, and
even fingerprint detection.
3. Piezoelectric Force Sensor
• Piezoelectric Force Sensor: Utilizes the piezoelectric effect is an example of a
piezoelectric force sensor. Some materials produce an electric voltage when
mechanical stress or forces are applied along specific planes.

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• A strain gauge works on the principle that a conductor's electrical resistance

changes when stretched or compressed (mechanical strain), converting physical
deformation into a measurable electrical signal, typically using a Wheatstone
bridge circuit to detect resistance shifts caused by changes in the gauge's length
and cross-sectional area. When the attached object stretches, the gauge's wire
elongates and thins, increasing resistance; when compressed, it shortens and
thickens, decreasing resistance, with the resulting tiny voltage change amplified
for precise measurement.

Velocity Sensors

• Velocity or speed sensors measure how fast something is moving.

• They do this in two ways:
1. By taking two position readings at different times and calculating how
much the position changed per unit time.
2. By directly sensing the speed using special physical principles.
• All position sensors can also be used to measure velocity if we know the time taken
for the movement.
1. Tachometer
• A tachometer is a sensor that measures how fast a shaft or motor is rotating.
• It can directly give the speed without doing many calculations.
• A coil is attached to the rotating shaft.
• This coil rotates inside a magnetic field (stator).

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• When the shaft rotates faster, the coil cuts the magnetic field faster.
• According to Fleming’s rule, more voltage is generated when rotation speed
increases.
• This voltage is then converted into a digital signal and given to the controller or
computer.
2. Hall-effect sensor
• The principle of the Hall Effect states that when a current-carrying conductor or a
semiconductor is introduced to a perpendicular electric field and magnetic field, a
voltage can be generated at the right angle to the applied electric and magnetic
field. This effect of obtaining a measurable voltage is known as the Hall Effect.
• A Hall-effect sensor is used to measure velocity or speed using magnetic fields.
• A thin flat piece of semiconductor material (called a Hall chip) is used.

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• Normally, if you apply voltage to two opposite ends of the chip, the voltage on
the other two sides will be zero.
• But when a magnetic field is applied at right angles to the chip, a new voltage is
produced on the other sides. This new voltage is called the Hall voltage.
• The Hall voltage changes depending on how fast the shaft or object is moving.
• Hall effect sensors detect magnetic fields for non-contact sensing, widely used
in automotive (ABS, ignition, crankshaft position), industrial automation
(proximity, speed, current sensing), and consumer electronics (smartphones for
flip covers, keyboards, laptops) for position, speed, and current monitoring,
offering robust, long-life alternatives to mechanical switches.

Acceleration Sensors

• Acceleration sensors measure how quickly the speed of an object is changing.

• One way to find acceleration is by calculating how quickly the velocity changes.
• But doing this through velocity data needs a lot of computer calculations, which
slows down the system. So it is not efficient.
• Instead of calculating from velocity (which is slow), they measure force using
strain gauges, because force directly shows acceleration.
• According to Newton’s second law ( F=ma ), force is directly proportional to
acceleration, allowing faster and more accurate estimation of dynamic motion

Contact-type external sensors

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• Contact-type external sensors function by using direct physical touch with an

object or medium to detect a condition, converting the mechanical input into an
electrical signal.
• Eg: Limit Switches, Strain Gauges, Potentiometers
• A limit switch works like the ON/OFF switches we use at home.
• It has a small mechanical arm that gets pressed when an object touches it.
• When the arm is pressed, the switch changes its state (ON or OFF).
• This helps the robot know when something has reached a specific position.

Digital Camera
1. A CCD camera uses a charge-coupled device sensor to convert incident light into
electrical charges and then into a digital image.
• Working Principle
o Light falls on CCD pixels → generates electric charge (photoelectric effect).
o Charges are stored in each pixel.
o Charges are transferred pixel-by-pixel to a readout register.
o Output charge is converted to voltage and then digitized.
• Advantages
o High image quality

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o Excellent low-light performance

o Low fixed-pattern noise
• Disadvantages
o High power consumption
o Slower readout speed
o Expensive fabrication
• Applications
o Scientific imaging
o Medical imaging
2. A CMOS camera uses CMOS image sensors where each pixel has its own charge-to-
voltage conversion circuitry.
• Working Principle
o Light strikes the pixel → generates charge.
o Charge is converted to voltage within each pixel.
o Signals are read directly using row-column addressing.
o Output is digitized and processed.
• Key Features
o On-chip amplifiers and ADC
o Parallel readout
• Advantages
o Low power consumption
o High readout speed
o Low cost
o Compact size
• Disadvantages
o Higher noise (compared to CCD)
o Lower sensitivity in low light (older designs)
• Applications
o Mobile phone cameras
o Robotics and AI vision
3. An omnidirectional camera captures a 360° field of view around a single
viewpoint.

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• Construction
o Conventional camera + convex mirror (parabolic or hyperbolic)
o Or multiple wide-angle cameras stitched together
• Working Principle
o Light from all directions reflects off the mirror.
o The camera captures a circular image covering the entire surroundings.
o Image is unwrapped using software into panoramic view.
• Advantages
o Complete situational awareness
o Suitable for dynamic environments
o Reduced need for camera rotation
• Disadvantages
o Lower resolution per direction
o Image distortion
o Complex image processing
• Applications
o Mobile robotics
o Autonomous navigation
o Surveillance and security
Actuator
 Actuators: Actuation is the process of conversion of energy to mechanical form. A
device that accomplishes this conversion is called actuator.
 Actuator plays a very important role while implementing control. The controller
provides command signal to the actuator for actuation.
 The control codes aims at “ deriving the actuator when an event has occurred”
 Actuators are the muscles of robots. There are many types of actuators available
depending on the load involved. The term load is associated with many factors
including force, torque, and speed of operation, accuracy, precision and power
consumption.
 An actuator is an electromechanical device which converts energy into mechanical
work (or motion).

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 For robots, actuators are like muscles that perform work. The work can be either
to induce motion, or to object motion; i.e. either to start a movement, or to stop it.
 There are different types of actuators available and most of them either create
rotational motion, or linear motion. (Oscillatory motion is rarely used, and even if
required can be created using a linear or a rotary actuator).
Linear Actuators
 As the name says, linear actuator creates linear motion, i.e. it creates to and fro
motion. These actuators can be driven by either linear or rotational motion.
 To simplify things, let us take an example of a bicycle. When the cyclist pushes the
pedal, it rotates the bottom bracket in a cycle which is connected to a roller chain.
Now the rotational motion from the bracket creates a linear motion in the roller
chain.
Rotatory Actuators
 Rotational actuator induces rotary or rotational motion. A simple DC motor is an
example of rotational actuator. Similar to linear actuator, rotation actuators can
be driven by either linear motion or rotational motion. Consider bicycle example
to understand how linear motion can be used to create rotary motion. The roller
chain in a bicycle is connected to sprocket gear of the driving wheel (Normally
back wheel). When a cyclist pedals, the roller chain (remember that roller chain is
an example of linear motion) rotates the sprocket gear creating a rotational
motion further rotates the wheel.
 Most actuators can be mechanically designed to induce rotary motion or linear
motion. A simple nut attached to a linear member can create a rotary motion. On
the other hand, attaching a screw to a rotary actuator creates linear motion.

DC MOTOR
 DC electric-motors are arguably the most used method for locomotion in mobile
robots. DC motors are clean, quiet, and can produce sufficient power for a variety
of tasks.
 Standard DC motors revolve freely. Motor control therefore requires a feedback
mechanism using shaft encoders.

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 A DC motor consist basically of two parts, the stationary body of the motor called
the “Stator” and the inner part which rotates producing the movement called the
“Rotor”. For D.C. machines the rotor is commonly termed the “Armature”.
 Generally in small light duty DC motors the stator consists of a pair of fixed
permanent magnets producing a uniform and stationary magnetic flux inside the
motor giving these types of motors their name of “permanent-magnet direct
current” (PMDC) motors.
 The motors armature consists of individual electrical coils connected together in
a circular configuration around its metallic body producing a North-Pole then a
South-Pole then a North-Pole etc, type of field system configuration.
 The current flowing within these rotor coils producing the necessary
electromagnetic field. The circular magnetic field produced by the armatures
windings produces both north and south poles around the armature which are
repelled or attracted by the stator’s permanent magnets producing a rotational
movement around the motors central axis as shown.

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 As the armature rotates electrical current is passed from the motors terminals to
the next set of armature windings via carbon brushes located around the
commutator producing another magnetic field and each time the armature rotates
a new set of armature windings are energised forcing the armature to rotate more
and more and so on.
 So the rotational speed of a DC motor depends upon the interaction between two
magnetic fields, one set up by the stator’s stationary permanent magnets and the
other by the armatures rotating electromagnets and by controlling this interaction
we can control the speed of rotation.
Pulse Width Modulation
 So how do we control the flow of current through the motor. Well many people
attempt to control the speed of a DC motor using a large variable resistor
(Rheostat) in series with the motor as shown.
 While this may work, but it generates a lot of heat and wasted power in the
resistance. One simple and easy way to control the speed of a motor is to regulate
the amount of voltage across its terminals and this can be achieved using “Pulse
Width Modulation” or PWM.
 Pulse Width Modulation speed control works by driving the motor with a series of
“ON-OFF” pulses and varying the duty cycle, the fraction of time that the output
voltage is “ON” compared to when it is “OFF”, of the pulses while keeping the
frequency constant.
 The power applied to the motor can be controlled by varying the width of these
applied pulses and thereby varying the average DC voltage applied to the motors
terminals.
 By changing or modulating the timing of these pulses the speed of the motor can
be controlled, ie, the longer the pulse is “ON”, the faster the motor will rotate
and likewise, the shorter the pulse is “ON” the slower the motor will rotate.
 In other words, the wider the pulse width, the more average voltage applied to the
motor terminals, the stronger the magnetic flux inside the armature windings and
the faster the motor will rotate and this is shown below.

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 The use of pulse width modulation to control a small motor has the advantage in
that the power loss in the switching transistor is small because the transistor is
either fully “ON” or fully “OFF”. As a result the switching transistor has a
much reduced power dissipation giving it a linear type of control which results in
better speed stability.
 Also the amplitude of the motor voltage remains constant so the motor is always
at full strength. The result is that the motor can be rotated much more slowly
without it stalling.
 Pulse width modulation or PWM for short is a smart method for avoiding analog
power circuitry by utilizing the fact that mechanical systems have a certain
latency.
 Instead of generating an analog output signal with a voltage propoRtional to the
desired motor speed, it is sufficient to generate digital pulses at the full system
voltage level (for example 5V). These pulses are generated at a fixed frequency,
for example 20 kHz, so they are beyond the human hearing range.
 By varying the pulse width in software we also change the equivalent or effective
analog motor signal and therefore control the motor speed. One could say that the
motor system behaves like an integrator of the digital input impulses over a
certain time span. The quotient ton/tperiod is called the “pulse–width ratio” “
duty cycle”.

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H- BRIDGE
 An H-bridge is a simple circuit that lets you control a DC motor to go backward or
forward.
 You normally use it with a microcontroller, such as an Arduino, to control motors.
 An H-bridge is what is needed to enable a motor to run forward/backward.

 A DC motor spins either backward or forward, depending on how you connect the
plus and the minus.
 If you close switches 1 and 4, you have plus connected to the left side of the motor
and minus to the other side. And the motor will start spinning in one direction.

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 If you instead close switches 2 and 3, you have plus connected to the right side and
minus to the left side. And the motor spins in the opposite direction.

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Stepper Motors
 Stepper motors differ from standard DC motors in such a way that they have two
independent coils which can be independently controlled.
 As a result, stepper motors can be moved by impulses to proceed exactly a single
step for- ward or backward, instead of a smooth continuous motion in a standard
DC motor.
 A typical number of steps per revolution is 200, resulting in a step size of 1.8°.
Some stepper motors allow half steps, resulting in an even finer step size.
 There is also a maximum number of steps per second, depending on load, which
limits a stepper motor’s speed.

 A stepper motor is a type of DC motor that rotates in steps. When electrical signal
is applied to it, the motor rotates in steps and the speed of rotation depends on the
rate at which the electrical signals are applied and the direction of rotation is
dependent on the pattern of pulses that is followed.
 A stepper motor is made up of a rotor, which is normally a permanent magnet and
it is, as the name suggests the rotating component of the motor.
 A stator is another part which is in the form of winding (electromagnet).

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 In the diagram, the center is the rotor which is surrounded by the stator winding.
This is called as four phase winding.
 The centre tap on the stator winding allows the current in the coil to change
direction when the winding are grounded.
 The magnetic property of the stator changes and it will selectively attract and
repel the rotor, thereby resulting in a stepping motion for the motor.
 Working Principle

 Half step mode

 Full Step mode (energizing two coils)

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 Micro step mode

 Micro stepping in a stepper motor divides each full step into many smaller,
equidistant micro steps by varying the current in the motor's windings
sinusoidally, creating smoother, quieter, and higher-resolution movement
SERVO- MOTORS
 The applied electric signal to the servo motor can be either an analog signal or a
digital signal. When the electric signal is input to the servo motor, it produces a
movement required to position the shaft corresponding to the electric signal.
 Here, an encoder is used as a feedback unit that provides information about the
speed and position to a controller.
 Thus, the speed of the servo motor changes in proportion to the applied electric
signal.
 It consists of three parts:
1. Controlled device
2. Output sensor
3. Feedback system
 It is a closed-loop system where it uses a positive feedback system to control
motion and the final position of the shaft.

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 Here the device is controlled by a feedback signal generated by comparing output

signal and reference input signal.
 A motor: This can be either a DC motor or an AC motor depending on the power
source and the application requirements. The motor provides the mechanical
power to rotate or move the output shaft.
 A sensor: This can be either a potentiometer, an encoder, a resolver, or another
device that measures the position, speed, or torque of the output shaft and sends
feedback signals to the controller.
 A controller: This can be either an analog or a digital circuit that compares the
feedback signals from the sensor with the desired set point signals from an
external source (such as a computer or a joystick) and generates control signals to
adjust the motor’s voltage or current accordingly.

 The basic working principle of a servo motor involves the controller receiving two
types of input signals:
 A set point signal: This is an analog or digital signal that represents the desired
position, speed, or torque of the output shaft.
 A feedback signal: This is an analog or digital signal that represents the actual
position, speed, or torque of the output shaft measured by the sensor.
 The controller compares these two signals and calculates an error signal that
represents the difference between them.
 The error signal is then processed by a control algorithm (such as PID) that
generates a control signal that determines how much voltage or current should be
applied to the motor.

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 The control signal is sent to a power amplifier (such as an H-bridge) that converts
it into an appropriate voltage or current level for driving the motor.
 The motor then rotates or moves according to the control signal and changes its
position, speed, or torque, and sends a new feedback signal to the controller.
 The process repeats until the error signal becomes zero or negligible, indicating
that the output shaft has reached the desired set point.
 Applications of Servo Motor
 Robotics: Servo motors are used to provide precise motion and force for robotic
arms, legs, joints, grippers, etc. They enable robots to perform tasks such as
picking, placing, welding, assembling, etc.
 CNC machinery: Servo motors are used to drive the axes of CNC machines such as
lathes, mills, routers, etc. They enable CNC machines to perform accurate and
complex machining operations such as cutting, drilling, engraving, etc.
 Automated manufacturing: Servo motors are used to control the movement and
position of various components and devices in automated manufacturing systems,
such as conveyors, feeders, loaders, unloaders, etc. They enable automated
manufacturing systems to achieve high productivity and quality.
 Medical equipment: Servo motors are used to operate various medical devices
and instruments such as surgical robots, scanners, pumps, ventilators, etc. They
enable medical equipment to perform precise and safe operations and treatments.
Difference between Servo motor and Stepper motor
Basic Difference Servo Motor Stepper Motor
A type of electric motor whose A type of brushless DC motor
operation is controlled with which divides the full rotation
Definition the help of servo mechanism of shaft into a number of equal
is known as servo motor. discrete steps is known as
stepper motor.
The operation servo motor is The operation of stepper
Operation continuous. motor is divided into discrete
steps.

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Control system Servo motor is configured in a Stepper motor has open loop
configuration closed loop control system. control system
Feedback The feedback mechanism No feedback mechanism in
mechanism exists in a servo motor. case of stepper motor.
Torque speed Servo motor produces high Stepper motors produce high
characteristics torque at high speeds. torque at low speeds.
Suitability with Servo motors are not suitable Stepper motors can be used for
fluctuating loads for fluctuating loads. fluctuating loads as well.
Servo motors have relatively The stepper motors are
Design
complex design. simpler in design.
Power Servo motors need relatively Stepper motors consume
consumption less power. comparatively more power.
The efficiency of servo motor The stepper motors are
Efficiency
is comparatively high. relatively less efficient.
The noise in case of servo Stepper motors produce high
Noise
motor is comparatively less. noise.
Servo motors have high The operating speed for
Operating speed
operating speed. stepper motors is low.
The cost of servo motors is The cost of stepper motors is
Cost
high. comparatively less.
Servo motors are extensively Stepper motors are used in 3D
used in remote controlled printers, welding machines,
Applications equipment, robots, antenna textile machines, medical
positioning systems, industrial equipment, etc.
automation, cameras, etc.

Pneumatic Actuators
 These actuators use the principle of Pneumatics (where pressurized air/gas) to
create motion (or perform work). Pneumatic actuators can be used to produce
both rotational motion and linear motion.
 The basic design includes a Cylinder, a Piston and few supporting components like
valves, springs, stoppers etc.,

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 Compressed Air or pressurized gas is filled into the cylinder and the compressed
air tries to expand to reach atmospheric pressure. This expansion is forced
towards a piston or any other mechanical device which makes an attached object
move.
 Depending on the design, it can either create rotational motion or linear motion.
Most air compressors and air pumps use this principle due to its simplistic design.
Image shows single acting cylinder where a spring pushes the piston back to its
base position. In a double acting cylinder, another valve on other end of the
cylinder pushes the piston back to base position.

Hydraulic Actuators
 According to Blaise Pascal, when there is an increase in pressure at any point in a
confined incompressible fluid, then there is an equal increase at every point in the
container. Hydraulic actuators are designed based on this principle (Pascal’s law).

 Hydraulic Cylinder: Generally referred as linear hydraulic motor is used when a

robot requires linear force.

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 These actuators are powered by hydraulic fluids. When hydraulic pressure acts on
it, a piston connected to a piston rod within the cylinder moves back and forth
creating linear motion.
 Hydraulic cylinders can also convert hydraulic pressure into rotation creating a
rotary actuator, based on the mechanical design.
BASICS OF CONTROL SYSTEM
 In a mechanical system, we are concerned with the response of the system to
certain inputs. These inputs include commands to drive the system and
disturbances from the environment.
 We can divide a system into five major components:
1. The input (or inputs) to the system
2. ⁠The controller and actuating devices
3. The plant (the mechanism or process being controlled)
4. The output (the controlled variable)
5. ⁠Feedback elements (sensors)

 A general block diagram of the control system components for one joint of a robot
manipulator is shown.
 The input command is the defined position (and possibly speed) to which the joint
is directed to move.
 The output variable is the actual position (and speed) of the joint.
 The components of a control system include the controller and actuator.

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 The purpose of the controller is to compare the actual output of the plant with the
input command and to provide a control signal which will reduce the error to zero
or as close to zero as possible.
 The controller generally consists of a summing junction where the input and
output signals are compared, a control device which determines the control
action, and the necessary power amplifiers and associated hardware devices to
accomplish the control action in the plant.
 The actuator is used in robotics to convert the control action into physical
movement of the manipulator.
 The controller and actuator may be operated by pneumatic, hydraulic, mechanical,
or electronic means, or combinations of these.
 There are four basic control actions which are used singly or in combination to
provide six common types of controller: on-off control, proportional control,
derivative control and integral control.
 The six controller types are:
1. ⁠On-off
2. ⁠Proportional
3. ⁠Integral
4. Proportional-plus-integral (P-I)
5. Proportional-plus-derivative (P-D)
6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative (P-I-D)
ON-OFF CONTROL
 In the on off controller, the control element provides only two levels of
control, full-on or full-off.
 An example of a common implementation of this type of controller is the
household thermostat (A room thermostat keeps your home at a steady
temperature. It turns the heating on until it reaches your chosen
temperature, then switches it off until the room cools slightly).
 On-Off control is the simplest form of feedback control.
 Sometimes, the control element has only two positions either it is fully
closed or fully open.
 This control element does not operate at any intermediate position, i.e.
partly open or partly closed position. Transmits only two output signal-ON

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(100%) & OFF (0%). Also known as Ban-Bang Controller or 2 –step

controller.

 Error-Based Switching: The controller compares the actual state (Process

Variable) to the desired state (Set point).
 Full Output: If the error is positive (below set point), the output goes full
ON; if negative (above set point), it goes full OFF (or vice versa).
 Oscillation: This rapid switching causes the controlled variable to
continuously overshoot and undershoot the set point, creating a cycle.
 A very common example of on-off control theory is a fan controlling scheme
of the transformer cooling system. When transformer runs with such a
load, the temperature of the electrical power transformer rises beyond the
pre-set value at which the cooling fans start rotating with their full
capacity.
 As the cooling fans run, the forced air (output of the cooling system)
decreases the temperature of the transformer. When the temperature
(process variable) comes down below a pre-set value, the control switch of
fans trip and fans stop supplying forced air to the transformer.
 After that, as there is no cooling effect of fans, the temperature of the
transformer again starts rising due to load.
 Again when during rising, the temperature crosses the pre-set value, the
fans again start rotating to cool down the transformer.
P-I-D Controller
 A PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controller in robotics is a
fundamental feedback loop that precisely controls robot movements by
continuously adjusting outputs (like motor power) to minimize the error

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between a desired target (setpoint) and the robot's actual state (position,
speed, etc.).
 It uses three terms: Proportional for current error, Integral for past errors
(eliminating steady-state errors), and Derivative for predicted future
errors (improving stability and reducing overshoot), ensuring smooth,
accurate, and stable robotic operation for tasks like arm positioning, flight
control, and autonomous navigation.
 P-I-D control is the most general control type and probably the most
commonly used type of controller. It provides quick response, good control
of system stability and low steady-state error. The computations
associated with any of the above controllers are typically performed by
microcomputers in a modern robot controller.

VELOCITY & POSITION CONTROL

 To drive a motor at a given speed for a number of revolutions and then
come to a stop at exactly the right motor position we need velocity and
position control.
 The former, maintaining a certain speed, is generally called velocity
control, while the latter, reaching a specified position, is generally called
position control.
 The position controller sets the desired velocities in all driving phases,
especially during the acceleration and deceleration phases (starting and
stopping).
 Let us assume a single motor is driving a robot vehicle that is initially at
rest and which we would like to stop at a specified position.

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