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CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

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A Comprehensive Study in Organic Chemistry

Class X · Central Board of Secondary Education

I. BONDING IN CARBON — THE COVALENT BOND

The Nature of Carbon Bonding

Carbon, with atomic number 6, possesses four electrons in its valence shell. To attain the stable electronic
configuration of the nearest noble gas, carbon requires four additional electrons. The formation of C4- ion (by
gaining four electrons) or C4+ ion (by losing four electrons) would require tremendous energy, rendering such
ionic formations energetically unfavorable.

The Covalent Solution

Carbon achieves stability through the sharing of its four valence electrons with other atoms, forming covalent
bonds. This electron sharing allows carbon to complete its octet whilst maintaining electrical neutrality,
making it the foundation of organic chemistry.

II. THE REMARKABLE NATURE OF CARBON

Catenation — The Self-Linking Property

Carbon possesses the extraordinary ability to form bonds with other carbon atoms, creating chains and rings of
various lengths. This phenomenon, termed catenation, is attributed to the strong C—C covalent bonds
resulting from carbon's small atomic size. This property enables the formation of millions of carbon
compounds.

Tetravalency
With four valence electrons, carbon exhibits tetravalency, forming four covalent bonds that arrange
themselves tetrahedrally in space, with bond angles of approximately 109.5 degrees.

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 Types of Carbon Bonds

Bond Type Description Example

Saturated compounds
Single Bond (C—C) Ethane (C₂H₆)
One pair of electrons shared

Unsaturated compounds
Double Bond (C=C) Ethene (C₂H₄)
Two pairs of electrons shared

Unsaturated compounds
Triple Bond (C≡C) Ethyne (C₂H₂)
Three pairs of electrons shared

III. ALLOTROPES OF CARBON

Carbon manifests in several allotropic forms, each possessing distinct physical properties whilst maintaining
identical chemical composition.

Allotrope Structure Properties Uses

Hardest natural substance Cutting tools

Tetrahedral
Diamond Non-conductor of electricity Jewelry
3D network
High refractive index Glass cutting

Soft and slippery Pencil leads

Layered hexagonal
Graphite Good conductor Lubricants
planes
Weak inter-layer forces Electrodes

C-60 (Buckminsterfullerene) Drug delivery

Spherical
Fullerenes Football-like structure Nanotechnology
molecules
60 carbon atoms Superconductors

IV. SATURATED AND UNSATURATED CARBON

COMPOUNDS

Saturated Compounds: Contain only single bonds between carbon atoms (alkanes). These compounds are
relatively unreactive and form the basis of petroleum products.

Unsaturated Compounds: Contain at least one double or triple bond between carbon atoms (alkenes and
alkynes). These compounds are more reactive than their saturated counterparts.

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 V. HYDROCARBONS — FUNDAMENTAL ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS

Hydrocarbons are compounds composed exclusively of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They constitute the
simplest class of organic compounds and serve as the foundation for understanding organic chemistry.

A. Alkanes (Saturated Hydrocarbons)

General Formula: CnH2n+2

Name Molecular Formula Structural Formula State at Room Temp.

Methane CH₄ Single carbon Gas

Ethane C₂H₆ C—C Gas

Propane C₃H₈ C—C—C Gas

Butane C₄H₁₀ C—C—C—C Gas

Pentane C₅H₁₂ Chain of 5 carbons Liquid

B. Alkenes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons)

General Formula: CnH2n (contain one C=C double bond)

• Ethene (C2H4): The simplest alkene, used in ripening fruits

• Propene (C3H6): Used in polymer production

C. Alkynes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons)

General Formula: CnH2n-2 (contain one C≡C triple bond)

• Ethyne/Acetylene (C2H2): Used in welding torches

• Propyne (C3H4): Chemical intermediate

VI. NOMENCLATURE OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system provides systematic rules for
naming organic compounds:

No. of Carbons Prefix Alkane Alkene Alkyne

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 1 Meth- Methane — —

2 Eth- Ethane Ethene Ethyne

3 Prop- Propane Propene Propyne

4 But- Butane Butene Butyne

5 Pent- Pentane Pentene Pentyne

Naming Rules:
1. Identify the longest carbon chain (determines prefix)

2. Identify the type of bonds (determines suffix: -ane, -ene, or -yne)

3. Number the carbon atoms from the end nearest to multiple bonds or functional groups

4. Name and number any substituents or functional groups

VII. STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM

Definition of Isomers
Isomers are compounds possessing identical molecular formulae but different structural arrangements of
atoms. This phenomenon becomes increasingly common as the number of carbon atoms increases.

Example: Butane (C4H10)

Butane exists in two isomeric forms:

1. n-Butane: A straight chain of four carbon atoms

CH3—CH2—CH2—CH3

2. Isobutane (2-Methylpropane): A branched structure

CH3—CH(CH3)—CH3

Whilst both isomers share the same molecular formula, they exhibit different physical properties such as
boiling points, melting points, and densities.

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 VIII. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

Functional groups are specific atoms or groups of atoms that confer characteristic chemical properties to
organic molecules, regardless of the carbon chain length.

Functional Group Formula Class Example

Hydroxyl —OH Alcohol Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)

Aldehyde —CHO Aldehyde Methanal (HCHO)

Ketone >C=O Ketone Propanone (CH₃COCH₃)

Carboxyl —COOH Carboxylic Acid Ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH)

Halogen —X (F, Cl, Br, I) Haloalkane Chloromethane (CH₃Cl)

IX. HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

A homologous series comprises a family of organic compounds sharing the same functional group and general
formula, with successive members differing by a —CH2— unit.

Characteristics:
• All members possess the same functional group

• Successive members differ by —CH2— (molecular mass difference of 14 u)

• All members can be represented by the same general formula

• Members exhibit similar chemical properties

• Physical properties show gradual variation with increasing molecular mass

X. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

A. Combustion Reactions
Carbon compounds undergo oxidation in the presence of oxygen, releasing energy:

C + O2 → CO2 + Heat + Light

2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O + Heat

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Complete Combustion: Occurs with sufficient oxygen, producing CO2 and H2O. The flame is clean and
blue.

Incomplete Combustion: Occurs with limited oxygen, producing CO and carbon (soot). The flame is yellow
and sooty.

B. Oxidation Reactions
Oxidizing agents such as alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate convert alcohols
to carboxylic acids:

CH3CH2OH → CH3CHO → CH3COOH

(Ethanol → Ethanal → Ethanoic acid)

C. Addition Reactions
Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions in the presence of catalysts:

Hydrogenation:

CH2=CH2 + H2 → CH3—CH3

(Ethene + Hydrogen → Ethane)

This reaction converts unsaturated compounds to saturated ones and is employed in the hydrogenation of
vegetable oils to produce solid fats (vanaspati ghee).

D. Substitution Reactions
Saturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reactions where hydrogen atoms are replaced:

CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl

(Sunlight required)

This reaction proceeds stepwise, potentially replacing multiple hydrogen atoms with chlorine.

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 XI. IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS

A. Ethanol (C2H5OH)

Physical Properties:
• Colourless liquid with pleasant odour

• Boiling point: 351 K (78°C)

• Soluble in water in all proportions

• Neutral to litmus

Chemical Properties:

1. Reaction with Sodium:

2C2H5OH + 2Na → 2C2H5ONa + H2↑

Liberates hydrogen gas (similar to water, but less vigorous)

2. Oxidation:

C2H5OH + Alkaline KMnO4 → CH3COOH

Ethanol oxidizes to ethanoic acid

3. Dehydration:

C2H5OH → C2H4 + H2O (at 443 K with conc. H2SO4)

Uses of Ethanol:
• Active ingredient in alcoholic beverages

• Solvent in medicines, tinctures, and perfumes

• Manufacture of methylated spirit (with methanol, for industrial use)

• Fuel additive and biofuel production

B. Ethanoic Acid (CH3COOH)

Physical Properties:

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• Colourless liquid with pungent, vinegar-like odour

• Freezing point: 290 K (17°C) — called glacial acetic acid when pure

• Soluble in water

• 5-8% solution in water constitutes vinegar

Chemical Properties:

1. Esterification Reaction:

CH3COOH + C2H5OH → CH3COOC2H5 + H2O

(Acid + Alcohol → Ester + Water)

Esters possess pleasant, fruity aromas and are employed in perfumes and flavourings.

2. Reaction with Base:

NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O

(Neutralization — produces sodium ethanoate)

3. Reaction with Carbonates:

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2↑

CO2 evolution turns lime water milky — test for carboxylic acids

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 XII. SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

Soaps Defined
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids (fatty acids). A representative example is
sodium stearate (C17H35COONa).

Structure of Soap Molecules

Soap molecules possess two distinct ends with contrasting properties:

1. Hydrophilic End (Ionic Head): The carboxylate group (—COO-Na+) that interacts favourably with water

2. Hydrophobic End (Carbon Chain Tail): The long hydrocarbon chain that interacts with oils and greases

Micelle Formation and Cleaning Action

When soap is dissolved in water, molecules arrange themselves into spherical clusters called micelles:

• Hydrophobic tails orient inward, toward the oil droplet at the centre

• Hydrophilic heads orient outward, toward the surrounding water

• Oil and dirt become trapped within the micelle centre

• Micelles remain suspended in solution due to ion-ion repulsion

• Agitation facilitates micelle formation and improves cleaning efficiency

The Problem of Hard Water

Hard Water Definition: Water containing dissolved calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions, typically
from salts such as CaCl2 and MgSO4.

Reaction with Hard Water:

2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca↓ + 2NaCl

(Soap + Hard water → Insoluble scum + Salt)

• Forms white, curdy precipitate (scum)

• Reduces foam production

• Wastes soap and impairs cleaning efficiency

Detergents — The Modern Alternative

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Chemical Nature: Sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts with similar dual-ended structure to
soaps.

Advantages of Detergents:
• Remain effective in hard water

• Do not form insoluble precipitates with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions

• No scum formation

• Maintain cleansing efficacy regardless of water hardness

Applications:
• Shampoo formulations

• Laundry detergents and washing powders

• Dishwashing liquids and industrial cleaners

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 XIII. COMPREHENSIVE REVISION

CARBON — THE VERSATILE ELEMENT

✓ Forms millions of organic compounds

✓ Tetravalent (valency = 4)

✓ Exhibits catenation (self-linking property)

✓ Forms strong covalent bonds

✓ Small atomic size enables strong C—C bonds

TYPES OF BONDING
• Single bond (C—C): Saturated compounds

• Double bond (C=C): Unsaturated compounds

• Triple bond (C≡C): Unsaturated compounds

ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
Diamond (hardest natural substance) | Graphite (good conductor) | Fullerenes (C-60)

HYDROCARBON FAMILIES
• Alkanes: CnH2n+2 (single bonds only)

• Alkenes: CnH2n (one double bond)

• Alkynes: CnH2n-2 (one triple bond)

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Alcohol (—OH) | Aldehyde (—CHO) | Ketone (>C=O) | Carboxylic acid (—COOH)

IMPORTANT CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Combustion: Hydrocarbon + O2 → CO2 + H2O + Heat + Light

2. Oxidation: Alcohol → Aldehyde → Carboxylic acid

3. Addition: Unsaturated + H2 → Saturated compound

4. Substitution: Alkane + Cl2 → Haloalkane + HCl

ETHANOL (C2H5OH)

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• Active ingredient in alcoholic beverages

• Excellent solvent in pharmaceutical preparations

• Reacts with sodium, liberating hydrogen gas

• Oxidizes to ethanoic acid

ETHANOIC ACID (CH3COOH)

• Weak carboxylic acid

• 5-8% aqueous solution constitutes vinegar

• Reacts with carbonates, producing CO2

• Forms sweet-smelling esters with alcohols

SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

• Soaps: Sodium/potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids

• Dual structure: Hydrophilic head + Hydrophobic tail

• Form micelles in aqueous solution

• Soaps ineffective in hard water (form scum)

• Detergents effective in hard water

ESSENTIAL MOLECULAR FORMULAE

Methane: CH4 | Ethane: C2H6 | Propane: C3H8

Ethene: C2H4 | Ethyne: C2H2

Ethanol: C2H5OH | Ethanoic acid: CH3COOH

KEY TERMINOLOGY
• Catenation: Self-linking property of carbon atoms

• Isomers: Same molecular formula, different structural arrangement

• Homologous Series: Family sharing functional group, differing by —CH2—

• Esterification: Acid + Alcohol → Ester + Water

• Saponification: Process of soap manufacture from esters and alkali

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~ Finis ~

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