Module-2

Elasticity Dr. F. Jyothi Serrao

Associate Professor
Dept. of Engineering Physics
SCEM (PH222I2M)

Pre-Requisites
Elasticity: The property of a material body by virtue of which it regains its original shape,
volume or size after the deforming force is removed.

Deforming force: When an applied force causes any change in the configuration of the
body either in length, volume or shape then the force applied is called deforming force.
If the body regains its original size and shape completely after the deforming force is
removed then the body is said to be perfectly elastic.
Eg: Elastomers: Rubber and polymers.
If the body retains completely its deformed size and shape after the deforming force
is removed, then the body is said to be perfectly plastic.
Eg: Putty, wax, dough
Concepts of Stress and Strain:
Stress refers to the cause of a deformation and strain refers to the effect of deformation.
Stress: The restoring force set up inside the body per unit area is called stress.
Restoring force is always equal and opposite to the deforming force.
𝐹
∴ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑁/𝑚2
𝐴
There are three types of stress.
I) Longitudinal stress
II) Compressive stress
III) Tangential stress.

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1. Longitudinal stress:
It is the stretching force acting per unit area of cross-section of the
body along its length.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
Longitudinal stress = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎
Eg: A spring gets extended when a mass is at one of its ends. A
restoring force generates tensile stress.

2. Compressive stress (Volume stress): The force per unit area acting
normally all over the body gives the volume stress or pressure. When a deforming force is
applied normally and uniformly to the entire surface of a body, it produces a volume
change but the shape remains unchanged.

𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
Compressive stress = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎

Eg: Springs in the shock absorbers of vehicles experience compressive stress.

3. Tangential stress (or Shearing stress): The force acting tangentially per unit area on
the surface of a body is called shearing stress. Due to this force shape changes but volume
remains unchanged.

𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
Shearing stress = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎

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Strain: The ratio of change in dimension to its original dimension, when the force is
applied is called strain.
There are three types of strain

1. Longitudinal strain: The ratio of change in length produced to the original length,
when the force applied is along its length is called as longitudinal strain. If L is the
original length and 𝒍 is the change in length, when the force is applied, then,
𝒍
Longitudinal strain =
𝑳
2. Volume strain or Bulk strain: The ratio of change in volume to the original volume,
when the normal and uniform force is applied all over the surface of a body, is called as
volume strain.
𝒗
Volume strain =
𝑽

3. Shearing Strain: The ratio of change in shape to the original shape, when a tangential
force is applied parallel to the surface is called as Shearing strain. It is measured by the
shearing angle θ.
𝑙
Shearing strain, θ =
𝐿

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Hook’s Law: This is the basic law of elasticity and was established by Robert Hook in
1678. The law states that “within the elastic limit, stress is proportional to the
corresponding strain”.
i.e Stress α Strain
Stress = (a constant) Strain
Stress = (E) Strain
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
=𝑬
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Where, E is the constant of proportionality called as Modulus of elasticity.
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Elastic Limit: The maximum stress that an elastic solid can sustain without
undergoing permanent deformation.
Corresponding to the three types of strain, there are three moduli of elasticity
1) Young’s Modulus, corresponding to longitudinal strain
2) Bulk Modulus, corresponding to the volume strain
3) Rigidity Modulus, corresponding to shearing strain.

Young’s modulus (Y): Within the elastic limit, the ratio of longitudinal stress to the
longitudinal strain is called Young’s modulus for the material of the body and is denoted
by the letter ‘Y’.
Let L be the original length of a wire of cross-sectional area a and 𝑙 is its elongation by
the application of a force F.
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹
𝑎 𝐹. 𝐿
∴𝑌= 𝑙
=
𝑎. 𝑙
𝐿
The unit of Y is Newton/ m2.

Bulk Modulus (K): “Within the elastic limit, the ratio of volume stress or pressure to the
volume strain is called Bulk modulus of the material of a body and it is denoted by a
letter ‘K’.
Let V be the original volume of a body and by the application of a pressure P ( i.e Force
𝐹
per Area ( )). Let v be the change in volume produced.
𝐴

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

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 𝐹
𝑎 𝑃 𝑃. 𝑉
∴ 𝐾= 𝑣 = 𝑣 =
𝑣
𝑉 𝑉

Rigidity Modulus (η): “within the elastic limit, the ratio of shearing stress to the shearing
strain is called rigidity modulus of the material of a body and is denoted by the letter η.

If θ is the shearing angle and very small,

𝑙
Then shearing strain θ ≈ tan θ =
𝐿
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹 𝐹
𝐹𝐿
η= 𝑎
= 𝑎
𝑙 =
𝜃 𝑎𝑙
𝐿

Lateral Deformation: In case of any deformation taking place along the length of a body
like a wire due to a deforming force, there is always some changes in the thickness of the
body. This change takes place in a direction perpendicular to the direction along which
the deforming force is acting is called lateral deformation.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
If D is the original diameter and d is the change in diameter, then,

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 𝑑
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐷

Longitudinal strain coefficient (α): The longitudinal strain produced per unit stress is
called longitudinal strain coefficient.

𝑙
If the longitudinal strain = and T be the applied stress. Then,
𝐿

Longitudinal strain coefficient α = 𝐿

𝑇

𝑙
𝛼= or 𝑙 = 𝛼𝐿𝑇
𝐿𝑇

Lateral strain coefficient (𝜷): The lateral strain produced per unit stress is called lateral
strain coefficient.

𝑑
If the lateral strain = and T be the applied stress. Then,
𝐷

𝑑
𝐷
Lateral strain coefficient 𝛽 =
𝑇

𝑑
𝛽= or 𝑑 = 𝛽𝐷𝑇
𝐷𝑇

Poisson’s Ratio (𝝈):

“Within the elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant
and is called Poisson’s ratio.

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 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Consider a wire of length L and diameter D. If it is stretched longitudinally by a force F,
its length increases by l and diameter decreases by d.

𝑑
𝐷 𝑑. 𝐿
∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝜎 = 𝑙 =
𝐷. 𝑙
𝐿

𝑑. 𝐿
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝜎 =
𝐷. 𝑙

𝛽𝐷𝑇. 𝐿
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝜎 =
𝐷. 𝛼𝐿𝑇
If β and α are the lateral and longitudinal strain coefficients respectively, then,
𝛽
∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝜎 =
𝛼
Poisson’s ratio is a pure number and has no units and dimensions.

Limiting Values of σ : The theoretical limiting values of σ are −𝟏 < 𝝈 < 𝟎. 𝟓

Derive the relation between Elongation strain, Compression strain and Shearing strain:
Consider a cubical slab ABCD of side length L, fixed at DC and subjected to tangential
force F as shown in the figure. As a result, layer AB slides to A IBI such a way that
diagonal AC is contracted and DB is elongated. The net shear strain is θ. Draw BK
perpendicular to DB1 and AIQ to AC. The Δ BKB1 can be assumed to be a right angled,
isosceles triangle where LBB1K= 45o and Also DB = DK

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From the fig,
𝐷𝐵 𝐼 −𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝐼 −𝐷𝐾 𝐾𝐵 𝐼
Elongation strain along DB = = = ----- (1)
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵
𝐴𝐶−𝐴𝐼 𝐶 𝐴𝑄
Compressive strain along AC = = ------ (2)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶

From eqn (1)

KB1 can be estimated as follows:

In isosceles right-angled triangle BKB1 , LBB1K = 45o,

𝐾𝐵𝐼
𝑐𝑜𝑠45𝑜 =
𝐵𝐵𝐼

𝐵𝐵 𝐼 𝑙
𝐾𝐵 𝐼 = 𝐵𝐵 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠45𝑜 = = --------(3)
√2 √2

DB can be estimated as follows:

DB = AC = √𝐿2 + 𝐿2 = 𝐿√2 ------- (4) (Pythagoras theorem)
Substitute (3) and (4) in (1)
𝐾𝐵 𝐼 𝑙 1
Elongation strain along DB = = ×
𝐷𝐵 √2 √2𝐿
𝑙 𝜃 𝑙
Or, Elongation strain along DB = = (because, = 𝜃)
2𝐿 2 𝐿
𝜽
∴ Elongation strain along DB = ------ (5)
𝟐

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 𝜽
Similarly, we can show that, compression strain along diagonal AC = ------ (6)
𝟐
𝜽 𝜽
Adding (5) and (6), + =θ
𝟐 𝟐

∴ Elongation strain + Compressive strain = Shearing strain.

Note: According to this result, elongation along DB (i.e DB1) is the sum of longitudinal
strain and lateral strain coefficients.

It is given by 𝐾𝐵 𝐼 = 𝛼(𝐷𝐾 )𝑇 + 𝛽(𝐷𝐾)𝑇 Since DK=DB, DB = √2𝐿

𝐾𝐵 𝐼 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(√2𝐿)𝑇
Derive the relation between Y, η and σ :
Consider a cubical slab ABCD of side length L, fixed at DC and subjected to tangential
stress T. As a result, layer AB slides to AIBI such a way that diagonal AC is contracted
and DB is elongated as shown in fig. The net shear strain is θ. Draw BK perpendicular to
DB1 and AIQ perpendicular to AC. Let 𝛼 and 𝛽 be the longitudinal and lateral strain
coefficients.

Total elongation produced along DBI is given by

𝐾𝐵𝐼 = 𝛼𝑇 (𝐷𝐾 ) + 𝛽𝑇(𝐷𝐾 ) = (𝛼 + 𝛽 )𝑇√2 𝐿 -----(1)
𝑙
Also, KBI = -------(2) ( From the triangle BBIK)
√2
From (1) and (2)

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 𝑙
= (𝛼 + 𝛽 )𝑇√2 𝐿
√2
𝑙 𝑙 1 𝜃
2(𝛼 + 𝛽 ) = = . =
𝑇𝐿 𝐿 𝑇 𝑇
1 T
=
2(α + β) θ
1
=η
2(α + β)
1
η=
2(α+β)
1
𝛼
η= 𝛽
2(1+𝛼)
𝐹
1 𝑙 𝑎 𝑇 𝐿𝑇 1
(But, 𝑌 = because, 𝛼 = 𝐿𝑇 and Young’s Modulus, Y = 𝑙 = 𝑙 = = )
𝛼 𝑙 𝛼
𝐿 𝐿

𝒀
η=
𝟐(𝟏+𝝈)

Beams:
Beam: Beam is a horizontal structure whose length is large compared to other
dimensions. It is mainly meant for withstanding load. Since the length of the beam is
much greater than its other dimensions the shearing stresses are very small and can be
neglected.

Different types of beams and their engineering applications:

There are four types of beams

1. Simple beam: A beam supported at both ends. These beams are mostly used in
general construction.
2. Continuous beam: A beam that has more than two supports. Used in bridge
construction.

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 3. Cantilever beam: A beam that is fixed at one end and free on the other end. Used
in bridges and buildings.
4. Fixed beam: A beam that is fixed at both ends. Used in the trusses.

Neutral Plane & Neutral Axis: A beam assumed to be made up of several thin layers and
each layer consists of parallel longitudinal filaments of fibres closely arranged as shown
in the fig.

Consider a rectangular beam fixed at one end and a loaded at the free end. As a result
the beam bends as shown in figure (3).
Let us consider a filament CD at the beam. It is found that the filaments (layers) lying
above CD (AB) gets elongated, while the filaments lying below CD (EF) gets compressed.
But, the filaments CD, which remains unaltered, neither elongated nor contracted.
Neutral Plane: The surface/layer in the beam, whose filaments do not undergo either
elongation or contraction when it is subjected to bending within elastic limit, is called the
neutral plane.
Neutral Axis: A filament in the neutral plane which do not undergo either elongation or
contraction when it is subjected to bending within elastic limit is called neutral axis.

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Bending Moment of a beam: Bending moment is a measure of the bending effect that
occur when an external force or moment is applied to a beam. It is given by the product
of magnitude of force and perpendicular distance from the neutral axis.

Expression for Bending Moment of a beam:

Consider a beam, to which a load is attached so that the beam bends uniformly into a
circular arc as shown in the figure.
Let A1B1 and E1F1 are the two layers situated at a distance r above and below the neutral
axis CD. Let R be the radius of curvature of bending.

From the fig,

A1B1 =(R+r) θ
CD = Rθ (= AB = EF)
∴ Change in length = A1B1−AB
Or, Change in length= (R+r) θ– Rθ = rθ

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝜃 𝑟
We have, longitudinal strain = = =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝜃 𝑅
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
We know, Young’s Modulus, Y=
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹/𝑎
Or, Y=
𝑟/𝑅
𝐹 𝑟
Or, = 𝑌.
𝑎 𝑅

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 𝑌𝑎 𝑟
Or, 𝐹 =
𝑅
But, Bending moment (Moment of force) = F×r
𝑌𝑎𝑟 2
∴ Bending moment = 𝐹 × 𝑟 =
𝑅
Here, a is the area corresponding to the layer AB
If the entire beam is considered, then
𝑌𝑎𝑟 2 𝑌
Bending moment = ∑ = ∑ 𝑎𝑟 2
𝑅 𝑅
Put ∑ 𝑎𝑟 2 = Ig is called the geometrical moment of inertia.
𝒀
∴ Bending moment = . 𝑰𝒈
𝑹

where Ig is called the geometrical moment of inertia. The value of Ig depends on the shape
of the beam.
a) For rectangular beam:
𝑏𝑑 3
∴Ig = (‘b’ is the breadth and ‘d’ is the thickness of the beam)
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𝒀 𝒃𝒅𝟑
∴ Bending moment of the rectangular beam = ( )
𝑹 𝟏𝟐

b) For a circular beam:

𝜋𝑟 4
∴ Ig = ( ‘r’ is the radius)
4
𝒀 𝝅𝒓𝟒
∴Bending moment of the circular beam = ( )
𝑹 𝟒

Single Cantilever:
 A horizontal beam fixed at one end and loaded at the free end is called cantilever.
 The primary characteristic of a cantilever is its ability to withstand bending
moments and carry loads without the need for additional support at the free end.
This is achieved by distributing the load along the length of the cantilever,
transferring it to the fixed support.
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I-Section Girder: An I-section girder, also known as an I-beam or H-beam, is a type of
structural element that consists of a horizontal beam with an I-shaped cross-section. It is
widely used in construction and engineering applications due to its excellent load-bearing
capacity and structural efficiency.

 The I-section girder resembles the letter "I" or an "H" when viewed from the side.
The cross-section consists of two horizontal flanges connected by a vertical web.
The top and bottom flanges are typically wider and thicker than the web, which
provides strength and stiffness, allowing the girder to support heavy loads.
 The I-section girder has several advantages in structural design such as high
strength-to-weight ratio, bending resistance, shear resistance and offers torsional
stability.

Failures of Engineering materials:

 Ductile Fracture: A ductile fracture is a type of fracture characterized by extensiv
e plastic deformation or necking, usually occurs prior to the actual fracture.

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 Brittle Fracture: Brittle Fracture is the sudden, very rapid cracking of material
under stress where the material exhibits little or no evidence of plastic deformation
before the fracture occurs.

 Stress Concentration: Stress concentration refers to the localized areas of high

stress that occur in a material due to the presence of notches, holes, sharp corners,
or changes in cross-section. These high stress concentrations can significantly
reduce the material's strength and increase the possibility of failure, particularly in
brittle materials.

 Fatigue failure: Fatigue failure is the formation and propagation of cracks due to a
repetitive or cyclic load. The cyclic loading induces microscopic cracks, known as
fatigue cracks, which gradually propagate and grow with each loading cycle. Over
time, it leads to sudden fracture.
The factors affecting fatigue: Several factors can influence the fatigue behaviour of
a material. These factors can be categorized into external and internal factors.
External factors include the materials shape, size, surface finish, and service
conditions, while internal factors include the material’s composition,

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 microstructure, purity, and residual stress. A small change in these factors can
cause fluctuations or significant changes in the material’s fatigue performance.

Engineering applications of Elastic materials:

A good elastic material is one which can sustain a large amount of force with minimal
deformation. Steel, wrought iron, cast iron, copper, brass etc. They find some potential
applications in engineering.
Eg; 1. Low carbon alloys are used in automobile body parts, beams, bridges etc.
2. Low carbon alloys containing copper, nickel and vanadium are used in the
manufacturing of truck frames.
3. Medium carbon alloys are used in railway wheels, gears etc.
4. High carbon alloys are used in cutting tools, knives, lift cables, crane cables etc.
5. Copper based alloys are highly resistant to corrosion and hence they are used in
electric wires, springs etc.

****************************
Questions:
1. Explain Hook’s law and different moduli of elasticity.
2. Explain Young’s Modulus, Bulk Modulus and Rigidity Modulus in elastic material and
derive the expressions for the same.
3. Show that for an elastic body, shearing strain= Longitudinal strain+ Compression strain.
4. Derive the relation between Y, η and σ.
5. Explain Poisson’s ratio and give the limiting value of it.
6. Explain different types of beams and give one application for each type
7. Explain the terms Bending moment of a beam, neutral axis and neutral plane
8. Derive the expression for Bending Moment of a rectangular beam
9. Write a note on I-Section Girder
10. Explain the failures of engineering materials
11. Explain the Engineering applications of Elastic materials

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