■

Zero to Advanced Python

A Complete Course — From Beginner to Expert

Python 3.12+ Zero to Advanced Hinglish Style Projects Included Interview Ready

Comprehensive Python Curriculum | Edition 2025

Table of Contents

Module 00 — Introduction to Python

• What is Python?
• Why Learn Python in 2025?
• Installation & Setup
• ■ Notes & Tips
• Practice Questions

Module 01 — Variables & Data Types

• What is a Variable?
• Core Data Types
• Type Conversion
• id(), Memory & Interning
• ■ Notes & Tips
• Practice Questions

Module 02 — Strings — Deep Dive

• String Basics & Creation
• Indexing & Slicing
• String Methods (Complete Reference)
• String Formatting (4 Ways)
• Advanced String Problems
• ■ Notes & Tips
• Practice Questions

Module 03 — Operators
• All Operator Types
• Operator Precedence (PEMDAS in Python)
• Practice Questions

Module 04 — Conditional Statements

• if / elif / else
• Practice Questions

Module 05 — Loops — for, while, Nested

• for Loop
• while Loop
• Loop Control: break, continue, pass
• Nested Loops & Patterns
• Practice Questions

Module 06 — Functions
• Defining & Calling Functions
• *args and **kwargs
• Scope: LEGB Rule
• Lambda Functions
• Recursion
• Practice Questions

Module 07 — Data Structures — List, Tuple, Set, Dictionary

• List — Ordered, Mutable, Allows Duplicates
 • Tuple — Ordered, Immutable
• Set — Unordered, Unique, Mutable
• Dictionary — Key-Value Store (VERY DEEP)
• Practice Questions

Module 08 — File Handling

• Reading & Writing Files
• CSV, JSON, os Module
• Practice Questions

Module 09 — Exception Handling

• try / except / else / finally
• Custom Exceptions & Exception Hierarchy
• Practice Questions

Module 10 — Object-Oriented Programming — Complete Guide

• Class & Object Basics
• Inheritance (All Types)
• Encapsulation & Properties
• Polymorphism & Abstraction
• Magic / Dunder Methods
• Class Methods, Static Methods, Properties
• Practice Questions

Module 11 — Advanced Python Concepts

• List Comprehension (Deep)
• Generators & Iterators
• Decorators
• Context Managers
• Regex (Regular Expressions)
• Multithreading & Multiprocessing
• Practice Questions

Module 12 — Libraries — NumPy & Pandas

• NumPy Basics
• Pandas Basics
• Practice Questions

Module 13 — Real-World Mini Projects

• Project 1: Calculator (CLI)
• Project 2: Password Generator
• Project 3: File Organizer
• Project 4: CLI Todo App

Module 14 — Revision Cheatsheet & Top Interview Questions

• Python Cheatsheet — Quick Reference
• Top 30 Python Interview Questions
• Project Ideas for Your Portfolio

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 3

 MODULE
00 Introduction to Python

What is Python?

Python ek high-level, interpreted, general-purpose programming language hai jo 1991 mein Guido van
Rossum ne banai thi. Iska naam Monty Python comedy group se liya gaya hai.

Python ka design philosophy — code ko readable aur simple banana — is baat ko English jaise likhne deta
hai. Yahi reason hai ki Python beginners ke liye best first language hai, aur professionals ke liye bhi
top choice.

Key properties:

• Interpreted — code line by line execute hoti hai, compile nahi hoti

• Dynamically typed — variable ka type runtime par decide hota hai

• Garbage collected — memory automatically manage hoti hai

• Multi-paradigm — OOP, functional, procedural sab support karta hai

• Cross-platform — Windows, Mac, Linux sab par run hota hai

Why Learn Python in 2025?

Python aaj duniya ki #1 most-popular language hai (TIOBE Index, Stack Overflow Survey 2024).

Use cases:

• Web Development — Django, Flask, FastAPI

• Data Science & ML — NumPy, Pandas, TensorFlow, PyTorch

• Automation & Scripting — selenium, pyautogui

• Cybersecurity — penetration testing tools

• Finance & Quant — algorithmic trading

• DevOps & Cloud — AWS Lambda, Docker scripts

• Game Development — Pygame

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 4

 Salary range (India 2025): ■4 LPA (fresher) → ■40+ LPA (senior)

Salary range (USA 2025): $70k (junior) → $200k+ (senior/ML engineer)

Installation & Setup

Step 1 — Download Python:

Visit [Link] aur latest version (3.12+) download karo.

Windows pe installer run karo — 'Add Python to PATH' checkbox zaroor tick karo!

Step 2 — Verify Installation:

Terminal/Command Prompt mein type karo:

python --version

Output: Python 3.12.x

Step 3 — Install VS Code (Recommended IDE):

[Link] se download karo

Extension install karo: 'Python' by Microsoft

Step 4 — Virtual Environment (Best Practice):

python -m venv myenv

Windows: myenv\Scripts\activate

Mac/Linux: source myenv/bin/activate

Step 5 — Your First Program:

print('Hello, World!')

Save as [Link] → run: python [Link]

■ Notes & Tips

■ Python 2 vs Python 3: Always use Python 3. Python 2 is dead (EOL 2020).

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 5

 ■ REPL: Type 'python' in terminal to open interactive shell — great for quick experiments.

■■ Common Mistake: Not adding Python to PATH on Windows. If 'python' command not found, reinstall and check
the 'Add to PATH' checkbox.

■ Interview Insight: Python is interpreted AND compiled — .py files compile to .pyc (bytecode) first, then the Python
VM interprets that bytecode.

Practice Questions

1. What does 'interpreted language' mean? 2. Difference between Python 2 and Python 3? 3. What is a virtual
environment and why use it? 4. Name 5 real-world applications of Python. 5. What does PEP 8 stand for? Coding
Challenges: C1. Write a program that prints your name, age, and city. C2. Use the print() function to display a
formatted receipt for a grocery bill.

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 6

 MODULE
01 Variables & Data Types

What is a Variable?

Variable ek container hai jo data store karta hai. Python mein variable declare karne ke liye koi
keyword (jaise 'int', 'var') use nahi hota — simply naam likho aur value assign karo.

Rules for variable names:

• Letter ya underscore se start hona chahiye

• Digits (0-9) bhi use kar sakte ho, but start mein nahi

• Case-sensitive: 'age' aur 'Age' alag variables hain

• Reserved keywords use nahi kar sakte (if, for, class, etc.)

Code Examples:

name = 'Rahul' # string

age = 25 # integer

salary = 45000.50 # float

is_employed = True # boolean

data = None # NoneType

Multiple assignment:

x, y, z = 1, 2, 3 # unpack

a = b = c = 0 # all same value

type() function:

print(type(age)) # <class 'int'>

print(type(name)) # <class 'str'>

Core Data Types

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 Python mein built-in data types:

1. int — integers (whole numbers)

x = 100

big = 10_000_000 # underscore for readability

binary = 0b1010 # binary = 10

hexa = 0xFF # hex = 255

2. float — decimal numbers (IEEE 754 double precision)

pi = 3.14159

sci = 1.5e-3 # scientific notation = 0.0015

import sys; print(sys.float_info.max) # max float

3. complex — complex numbers

c = 3 + 4j

print([Link], [Link]) # 3.0 4.0

4. str — strings (immutable sequence of characters)

s = 'Hello'

s2 = "World"

s3 = '''Multi

line'''

5. bool — True or False (subclass of int!)

print(True + True) # 2

print(bool(0)) # False

print(bool('')) # False

6. NoneType — represents absence of value

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 result = None

print(result is None) # True

Type Conversion

Type conversion — ek type se doosre mein convert karna.

Implicit (Python auto-converts):

x = 5 + 2.0 # int + float = float (3.0)

Explicit (aap manually convert karo):

int('42') # → 42

float('3.14') # → 3.14

str(100) # → '100'

bool(0) # → False

list('abc') # → ['a', 'b', 'c']

Real example:

age_str = input('Enter age: ') # input() always returns str

age_int = int(age_str) # convert to int

print('Next year you will be', age_int + 1)

■■ int('3.14') raises ValueError — convert float string to float first:

int(float('3.14')) # → 3

id(), Memory & Interning

id() returns the memory address of an object.

a = 5

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 b = 5

print(id(a) == id(b)) # True — Python interns small ints (-5 to 256)

x = 1000

y = 1000

print(id(x) == id(y)) # False — large ints are NOT interned

String interning:

s1 = 'hello'

s2 = 'hello'

print(s1 is s2) # Usually True — Python interns short strings

s3 = 'hello world'

s4 = 'hello world'

print(s3 is s4) # May be False for longer strings

■ Interview Insight: 'is' checks identity (same object), '==' checks equality (same value). Never use
'is' to compare values — always use '==' for value comparison.

■ Notes & Tips

■ Python variables are labels pointing to objects, not boxes storing values.

■ Use snake_case for variable names (PEP 8 convention): my_variable, total_price.

■■ Common Mistake: Confusing '=' (assignment) with '==' (comparison).

■■ Avoid naming variables after built-ins: list, dict, str, type, id, etc.

■ Interview Q: What are mutable vs immutable types? Immutable: int, float, str, tuple, frozenset, bool Mutable: list,
dict, set, user-defined classes

Practice Questions

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 10

 1. What will print(type(True)) output? 2. What is the output of: print(10 / 3) vs print(10 // 3)? 3. Can a variable name
start with a number? Why/why not? 4. What is None and how is it different from 0 or ''? 5. What is type coercion
(implicit conversion)? Give an example. 6. What is the difference between is and == operators? 7. Can you store
different types in the same variable at different times? Coding Challenges: C1. Take user's name and birth year as
input, calculate and print their age. C2. Create variables for a product (name, price, quantity), calculate total bill with
18% GST and print a formatted bill.

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 11

 MODULE
02 Strings — Deep Dive

String Basics & Creation

String ek immutable sequence of Unicode characters hai.

Creating strings:

s1 = 'single quotes'

s2 = "double quotes"

s3 = '''triple single — multi-line

string here'''

s4 = """triple double — also multi-line"""

Special strings:

raw = r'C:\Users\name' # raw string — backslash treated literally

byte = b'hello' # bytes object

Escape sequences:

'\n' = newline, '\t' = tab, '\\' = backslash

'\'' = quote, '\r' = carriage return

String repetition & concatenation:

'ha' * 3 # 'hahaha'

'Hello' + ' World' # 'Hello World'

len():

len('Python') # 6

Indexing & Slicing

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 String indexing — 0 se start hoti hai. Negative indexing bhi possible hai!

s = 'P Y T H O N'

0 1 2 3 4 5

-6-5-4-3-2-1

s[0] # 'P'

s[-1] # 'N'

s[-2] # 'O'

Slicing syntax: s[start:stop:step]

s = 'PYTHON'

s[0:3] # 'PYT' (0,1,2 — stop is excluded)

s[2:] # 'THON' (2 to end)

s[:4] # 'PYTH' (start to 4)

s[::2] # 'PTO' (every 2nd character)

s[::-1] # 'NOHTYP' (reversed!)

s[1:5:2] # 'YH'

Advanced examples:

s = 'Hello World'

s[6:] # 'World'

s[:5] # 'Hello'

s[-5:] # 'World'

s[::1] # 'Hello World' (copy)

s[::-1] # 'dlroW olleH'

Check substring:

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 13

 'ell' in 'Hello' # True

'xyz' not in 'Hello' # True

String Methods (Complete Reference)

CASE METHODS:

s = 'hello world'

[Link]() # 'HELLO WORLD'

[Link]() # 'hello world'

[Link]() # 'Hello World'

[Link]() # 'Hello world'

[Link]() # 'HELLO WORLD' → 'hello world'

SEARCH METHODS:

s = 'Python is great'

[Link]('is') # 7 (index) or -1 if not found

[Link]('is') # 7 (raises ValueError if not found)

[Link]('t') # 2

[Link]('Py') # True

[Link]('t') # True

STRIP METHODS:

s = ' hello '

[Link]() # 'hello' (remove both sides)

[Link]() # 'hello ' (left only)

[Link]() # ' hello' (right only)

'xxhelloxx'.strip('x') # 'hello'

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 14

 SPLIT & JOIN:

'a,b,c'.split(',') # ['a','b','c']

'hello world'.split() # ['hello','world'] (whitespace)

'a,b,c'.split(',', 1) # ['a','b,c'] (maxsplit)

'-'.join(['a','b','c']) # 'a-b-c'

''.join(['H','i']) # 'Hi'

REPLACE & FORMAT:

'hello'.replace('l','r') # 'herro'

'hello'.replace('l','r',1) # 'herlo' (max 1 replace)

'5'.zfill(3) # '005' (zero-fill)

'hi'.center(10, '-') # '----hi----'

'hi'.ljust(10, '.') # 'hi........'

'hi'.rjust(10, '.') # '........hi'

VALIDATION METHODS:

'abc'.isalpha() # True (only letters)

'123'.isdigit() # True (only digits)

'abc123'.isalnum() # True (letters + digits)

' '.isspace() # True (only whitespace)

'HELLO'.isupper() # True

'hello'.islower() # True

'Hello World'.istitle() # True

ENCODING:

'hello'.encode('utf-8') # b'hello'

b'hello'.decode('utf-8') # 'hello'

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 15

 String Formatting (4 Ways)

WAY 1 — % formatting (old style, avoid in new code):

name = 'Rahul'; age = 25

print('Name: %s, Age: %d' % (name, age))

# Name: Rahul, Age: 25

WAY 2 — [Link]() (Python 3+):

print('Name: {}, Age: {}'.format(name, age))

print('Name: {0}, Age: {1}'.format(name, age)) # positional

print('Name: {n}, Age: {a}'.format(n=name, a=age)) # keyword

WAY 3 — f-strings (Python 3.6+, RECOMMENDED):

print(f'Name: {name}, Age: {age}')

print(f'Next year: {age + 1}') # expressions work!

pi = 3.14159

print(f'Pi = {pi:.2f}') # Pi = 3.14

print(f'{name!r}') # repr: 'Rahul'

print(f'{name!u}') # uppercase

num = 1000000

print(f'{num:,}') # 1,000,000

print(f'{0.5:.1%}') # 50.0%

print(f'{42:08b}') # 00101010 (binary)

print(f'{"hello":^20}') # centered in 20 chars

WAY 4 — Template strings (rare, for user-supplied templates):

from string import Template

t = Template('Hello, $name!')

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 print([Link](name='World')) # Hello, World!

Python 3.12 f-string improvements:

# Nested quotes and multi-line now supported

print(f"Result: {', '.join(['a','b','c'])}")

Advanced String Problems

PROBLEM 1 — Palindrome check:

def is_palindrome(s):

s = [Link]().replace(' ', '')

return s == s[::-1]

print(is_palindrome('Racecar')) # True

PROBLEM 2 — Count vowels:

def count_vowels(s):

return sum(1 for c in [Link]() if c in 'aeiou')

print(count_vowels('Hello World')) # 3

PROBLEM 3 — Anagram check:

def is_anagram(a, b):

return sorted([Link]()) == sorted([Link]())

print(is_anagram('listen', 'silent')) # True

PROBLEM 4 — Compress string:

def compress(s):

result = ''

count = 1

for i in range(1, len(s)):

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 17

 if s[i] == s[i-1]:

count += 1

else:

result += s[i-1] + (str(count) if count > 1 else '')

count = 1

result += s[-1] + (str(count) if count > 1 else '')

return result

print(compress('aaabbc')) # 'a3b2c'

PROBLEM 5 — Caesar cipher:

def caesar(text, shift):

result = ''

for char in text:

if [Link]():

base = ord('A') if [Link]() else ord('a')

result += chr((ord(char) - base + shift) % 26 + base)

else:

result += char

return result

print(caesar('Hello', 3)) # 'Khoor'

■ Notes & Tips

■ Strings are immutable — you can't change a character in place. Create new strings.

■ Use f-strings for all new code — fastest and most readable.

■ [Link]() is faster than + for concatenating many strings in a loop.

■■ Common Mistake: Forgetting that split() without argument splits on ANY whitespace and removes empty strings.

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 18

 ■ Interview: How to reverse a string? → s[::-1]

■ Interview: Difference between find() and index()? → find() returns -1 on failure, index() raises ValueError.

■ Strings in Python store Unicode — emoji, Hindi, Chinese all work natively.

Practice Questions

1. What is the output of 'Python'[1::2]? 2. How do you check if a string contains only digits? 3. What does strip('xyz')
do vs strip()? 4. How do you format a float to 2 decimal places using f-strings? 5. What is the difference between
encode() and decode()? 6. How many times does 'l' appear in 'Hello World'? 7. Write a one-liner to reverse every
word in a sentence. Coding Challenges: C1. Write a function that checks if a string is a pangram (contains every
letter of the alphabet). C2. Write a program that takes a sentence and capitalizes the first letter of each word without
using title() or capitalize().

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 19

 MODULE
03 Operators

All Operator Types

ARITHMETIC OPERATORS:

+ Addition: 5 + 3 = 8

- Subtraction: 5 - 3 = 2

* Multiplication: 5 * 3 = 15

/ Division: 7 / 2 = 3.5 (always float)

// Floor Division: 7 // 2 = 3 (rounds down)

% Modulus: 7 % 2 = 1 (remainder)

** Exponent: 2 ** 10 = 1024

COMPARISON OPERATORS (return bool):

== Equal: 5 == 5 → True

!= Not Equal: 5 != 3 → True

> Greater: 5 > 3 → True

< Less: 3 < 5 → True

>= Greater/Equal: 5 >= 5 → True

<= Less/Equal: 3 <= 5 → True

# Chaining: 1 < x < 10 works in Python!

ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS:

= x = 5

+= x += 3 (x = x + 3)

-= x -= 3

*= x *= 2

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 20

 /= x /= 2

//= x //= 2

%= x %= 3

**= x **= 2

:= walrus operator (Python 3.8+): assigns in expression

while (n := int(input())) != 0:

print(n)

LOGICAL OPERATORS:

and → True if both True

or → True if at least one True

not → inverts the bool

Short-circuit: 'and' stops at first False, 'or' stops at first True

print(0 or 'hello') # 'hello' ← or returns first truthy value

print(5 and 'hi') # 'hi' ← and returns last truthy value

BITWISE OPERATORS:

& AND: 5 & 3 = 1 (0101 & 0011 = 0001)

| OR: 5 | 3 = 7 (0101 | 0011 = 0111)

^ XOR: 5 ^ 3 = 6 (0101 ^ 0011 = 0110)

~ NOT: ~5 = -6

<< Left shift: 5 << 1 = 10 (multiply by 2)

>> Right shift: 5 >> 1 = 2 (divide by 2)

IDENTITY & MEMBERSHIP:

is, is not → check if same object in memory

in, not in → check membership in sequence

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 21

 3 in [1,2,3] # True

'a' not in 'hello' # True

Operator Precedence (PEMDAS in Python)

Highest to Lowest:

1. () Parentheses

2. ** Exponentiation (right-to-left!)

3. +x, -x, ~x Unary

4. *, /, //, % Multiply/Divide

5. +, - Add/Subtract

6. <<, >> Bitwise shifts

7. & Bitwise AND

8. ^ Bitwise XOR

9. | Bitwise OR

10. ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=, is, is not, in, not in

11. not

12. and

13. or

Examples:

2 + 3 * 4 # 14 (not 20 — * before +)

(2 + 3) * 4 # 20

2 ** 3 ** 2 # 512 (= 2**9, right-to-left: 3**2=9, then 2**9)

not True or True # True (not before or)

Practice Questions

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 22

 1. What is the difference between / and //? 2. What does 10 % 3 return and what is it used for? 3. Explain short-circuit
evaluation with an example. 4. What is the walrus operator (:=) and when to use it? 5. What is the result of 3 < 5 < 10
in Python? Coding Challenges: C1. Write a program to check if a number is odd or even using the % operator. C2.
Using bitwise operators, write a function that checks if a number is a power of 2.

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 23

 MODULE
04 Conditional Statements

if / elif / else

Python mein indentation (whitespace) critical hai — blocks define karta hai.

Basic if:

age = 18

if age >= 18:

print('You can vote!')

if-else:

if age >= 18:

print('Adult')

else:

print('Minor')

if-elif-else:

score = 75

if score >= 90:

grade = 'A'

elif score >= 80:

grade = 'B'

elif score >= 70:

grade = 'C'

elif score >= 60:

grade = 'D'

else:

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 grade = 'F'

print(f'Grade: {grade}') # Grade: C

Ternary (one-liner if-else):

status = 'Adult' if age >= 18 else 'Minor'

Nested if:

x = 15

if x > 0:

if x % 2 == 0:

print('Positive even')

else:

print('Positive odd')

else:

print('Non-positive')

Truthiness — falsy values in Python:

False, 0, 0.0, '', [], {}, (), set(), None

# Everything else is truthy!

if []: print('list') # won't print

if [0]: print('list') # WILL print — non-empty list is truthy

match statement (Python 3.10+ — structural pattern matching):

command = 'quit'

match command:

case 'quit':

print('Quitting...')

case 'help':

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 print('Showing help...')

case _:

print('Unknown command')

Practice Questions

1. What are falsy values in Python? List all of them. 2. Can you have an if without an else? An elif without an if? 3.
What is a ternary expression? Write one. 4. What is the match statement introduced in Python 3.10? 5. Explain the
difference between 'if x:' and 'if x is not None:'. Coding Challenges: C1. FizzBuzz: Print numbers 1-100. For multiples
of 3 print 'Fizz', for multiples of 5 print 'Buzz', for multiples of both print 'FizzBuzz'. C2. Build a simple BMI calculator
that categorizes the result as Underweight/Normal/Overweight/Obese.

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 26

 MODULE
05 Loops — for, while, Nested

for Loop

for loop sequence/iterable ke har element par iterate karta hai.

Basic for:

for i in range(5):

print(i) # 0 1 2 3 4

range() function:

range(stop) # 0 to stop-1

range(start, stop) # start to stop-1

range(start, stop, step)

range(0, 10, 2) # 0,2,4,6,8

range(10, 0, -1) # 10,9,8,...,1 (countdown)

Iterating over sequences:

fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

for fruit in fruits:

print(fruit)

enumerate() — index + value:

for i, fruit in enumerate(fruits):

print(f'{i}: {fruit}')

# 0: apple, 1: banana, 2: cherry

zip() — iterate multiple lists together:

names = ['Alice', 'Bob']

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 scores = [90, 85]

for name, score in zip(names, scores):

print(f'{name}: {score}')

for on string, dict, set:

for char in 'hello': print(char)

d = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}

for key in d: # iterates keys

for key, val in [Link](): # key-value pairs

while Loop

while loop tab tak chalta hai jab tak condition True ho.

Basic while:

count = 0

while count < 5:

print(count)

count += 1

while with break:

while True: # infinite loop

user = input('Enter q to quit: ')

if user == 'q':

break

print(f'You said: {user}')

while with else:

n = 5

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 while n > 0:

print(n)

n -= 1

else:

print('Countdown done!') # runs after loop finishes normally

Loop Control: break, continue, pass

break — loop se bahar nikal jao:

for i in range(10):

if i == 5:

break

print(i) # prints 0,1,2,3,4

continue — current iteration skip karo:

for i in range(10):

if i % 2 == 0:

continue

print(i) # prints 1,3,5,7,9

pass — placeholder (do nothing):

for i in range(5):

pass # empty loop — no error

for...else / while...else:

The else block runs only if loop completed WITHOUT a break.

for i in range(5):

if i == 10: # never true

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 29

 break

else:

print('No break occurred') # This prints!

Use case — search and else:

numbers = [1, 3, 5, 7]

target = 4

for n in numbers:

if n == target:

print('Found!')

break

else:

print('Not found') # prints if target not in list

Nested Loops & Patterns

Nested loops (loop inside loop):

for i in range(3):

for j in range(3):

print(f'({i},{j})', end=' ')

print()

Pattern 1 — Right triangle:

for i in range(1, 6):

print('*' * i)

# *

# **

# ***

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 30

 # ****

# *****

Pattern 2 — Pyramid:

n = 5

for i in range(1, n+1):

print(' '*(n-i) + '*'*(2*i-1))

Multiplication table:

for i in range(1, 11):

for j in range(1, 11):

print(f'{i*j:4}', end='')

print()

Practice Questions

1. What is the difference between break and continue? 2. When does the else block of a for loop execute? 3. How
does enumerate() differ from range(len(list))? 4. How to loop over a dictionary's keys and values simultaneously? 5.
What is an infinite loop? How to safely create one? Coding Challenges: C1. Print all prime numbers between 1 and
100. C2. Write a program that finds the sum of digits of any number using a while loop.

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 31

 MODULE
06 Functions

Defining & Calling Functions

Function ek reusable block of code hai. DRY principle: Don't Repeat Yourself.

def keyword se define karo:

def greet(name):

'''Docstring: greet a person by name.'''

return f'Hello, {name}!'

print(greet('Rahul')) # Hello, Rahul!

Return values:

def add(a, b):

return a + b

# Multiple return values (actually a tuple):

def min_max(lst):

return min(lst), max(lst)

lo, hi = min_max([3, 1, 4, 1, 5]) # unpacking

Default parameters:

def power(base, exp=2):

return base ** exp

power(3) # 9 (exp defaults to 2)

power(3, 3) # 27

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 32

 ■■ Mutable default argument trap:

def bad(lst=[]): # WRONG — list shared across calls!

[Link](1)

return lst

bad() # [1]

bad() # [1, 1] — unexpected!

def good(lst=None): # CORRECT

if lst is None:

lst = []

[Link](1)

return lst

*args and **kwargs

*args — variable number of positional arguments (tuple):

def total(*args):

return sum(args)

print(total(1, 2, 3, 4)) # 10

**kwargs — variable number of keyword arguments (dict):

def display(**kwargs):

for key, val in [Link]():

print(f'{key} = {val}')

display(name='Rahul', age=25, city='Delhi')

Both together:

def everything(a, b, *args, **kwargs):

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 33

 print(a, b, args, kwargs)

everything(1, 2, 3, 4, x=5, y=6)

# 1 2 (3, 4) {'x': 5, 'y': 6}

Unpacking with * and **:

nums = [1, 2, 3]

print(*nums) # 1 2 3 (unpacks list)

d = {'sep': '-'}

print(*nums, **d) # 1-2-3

Scope: LEGB Rule

Python looks up names in this order:

L — Local: Inside current function

E — Enclosing: Outer function (closures)

G — Global: Module level

B — Built-in: Python built-ins (len, print, etc.)

x = 'global'

def outer():

x = 'enclosing'

def inner():

x = 'local'

print(x) # 'local'

inner()

print(x) # 'enclosing'

outer()

print(x) # 'global'

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 34

 global keyword:

count = 0

def increment():

global count

count += 1

nonlocal keyword (closures):

def outer():

x = 0

def inner():

nonlocal x

x += 1

inner()

return x # 1

Lambda Functions

Lambda — anonymous one-liner function.

Syntax: lambda args: expression

square = lambda x: x ** 2

print(square(5)) # 25

add = lambda a, b: a + b

print(add(3, 4)) # 7

Common use — with sorted(), filter(), map():

students = [('Alice', 90), ('Bob', 75), ('Charlie', 85)]

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 35

 [Link](key=lambda s: s[1], reverse=True)

# [('Alice',90), ('Charlie',85), ('Bob',75)]

nums = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

evens = list(filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, nums))

# [2, 4, 6]

squares = list(map(lambda x: x**2, nums))

# [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36]

from functools import reduce:

from functools import reduce

product = reduce(lambda x, y: x * y, [1,2,3,4,5])

# 120

Recursion

Recursion — function apne aap ko call karta hai.

Every recursion needs:

1. Base case (stopping condition)

2. Recursive case (reducing towards base)

Factorial:

def factorial(n):

if n <= 1: # base case

return 1

return n * factorial(n - 1) # recursive

print(factorial(5)) # 120

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 36

 Fibonacci:

def fib(n):

if n <= 1:

return n

return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)

# Slow — O(2^n). Use memoization!

Memoized Fibonacci:

from functools import lru_cache

@lru_cache(maxsize=None)

def fib(n):

if n <= 1:

return n

return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)

print(fib(100)) # Fast!

Binary search (recursive):

def binary_search(arr, target, lo, hi):

if lo > hi:

return -1

mid = (lo + hi) // 2

if arr[mid] == target:

return mid

elif arr[mid] < target:

return binary_search(arr, target, mid+1, hi)

else:

return binary_search(arr, target, lo, mid-1)

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 37

 ■■ Python default recursion limit: 1000

import sys; [Link](10000)

Practice Questions

1. What is the difference between *args and **kwargs? 2. Explain the LEGB scope rule. 3. What is a closure? Write
an example. 4. Why should you avoid mutable default arguments? 5. What is a lambda function? When should you
NOT use it? 6. What is the recursion limit in Python and how to change it? 7. Difference between map(), filter(), and
reduce()? Coding Challenges: C1. Write a recursive function to compute the sum of all digits of a number. C2. Write a
function that returns a closure — a counter that tracks how many times it's called.

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 38

 MODULE Data Structures — List, Tuple, Set,
07
Dictionary

List — Ordered, Mutable, Allows Duplicates

List creation:

lst = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

mixed = [1, 'hello', 3.14, True, None]

nested = [[1,2],[3,4],[5,6]]

empty = []

from_range = list(range(10))

Accessing & Slicing:

lst[0] # first element

lst[-1] # last element

lst[1:4] # elements 1,2,3

lst[::-1] # reversed

List Methods:

[Link](6) # add to end

[Link](0, 0) # insert at index

[Link]([7, 8]) # add multiple

[Link](3) # remove first occurrence

[Link]() # remove & return last

[Link](0) # remove & return at index

[Link](4) # find index of value

[Link](2) # count occurrences

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 39

 [Link]() # sort in place (ascending)

[Link](reverse=True) # sort descending

[Link](key=len) # sort by custom key

sorted(lst) # returns new sorted list

[Link]() # reverse in place

[Link]() # shallow copy

[Link]() # remove all elements

List comprehension (see Module 11):

squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]

Shallow vs Deep copy:

import copy

a = [[1,2],[3,4]]

b = [Link]() # shallow — nested lists still shared

c = [Link](a) # deep — completely independent

Tuple — Ordered, Immutable

Tuple — list jaisa but immutable (change nahi kar sakte).

Creation:

t = (1, 2, 3)

single = (42,) # comma required for single-element tuple!

packed = 1, 2, 3 # parentheses optional

Tuple unpacking:

a, b, c = (1, 2, 3)

first, *rest = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 40

 # first=1, rest=[2,3,4,5]

Swap variables using tuple:

a, b = b, a # Python magic!

Named Tuples:

from collections import namedtuple

Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])

p = Point(3, 4)

print(p.x, p.y) # 3 4

print(p[0], p[1]) # 3 4 — index also works

Why use tuples?

• Faster than lists

• Can be used as dict keys (immutable = hashable)

• Protect data from accidental modification

• Used for multiple return values from functions

Set — Unordered, Unique, Mutable

Set — mathematical set. No duplicates, no ordering.

Creation:

s = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

s = set([1, 2, 2, 3]) # {1, 2, 3} — duplicates removed

empty = set() # NOT {} — that's an empty dict!

Set operations:

a = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 41

 b = {3, 4, 5, 6}

a | b # Union: {1,2,3,4,5,6}

a & b # Intersection: {3,4}

a - b # Difference: {1,2}

b - a # Difference: {5,6}

a ^ b # Symmetric difference: {1,2,5,6}

Methods:

[Link](6) # add element

[Link](3) # remove (no error if missing)

[Link](3) # remove (raises KeyError if missing)

[Link]() # remove random element

[Link]() # empty the set

[Link](t) # True if s ⊆ t

[Link](t) # True if s ⊇ t

[Link](t) # True if no common elements

frozenset — immutable set (can be used as dict key):

fs = frozenset([1, 2, 3])

Best use case — fast membership testing:

O(1) vs list O(n):

valid = {'admin', 'user', 'guest'}

if role in valid: # O(1) lookup!

Dictionary — Key-Value Store (VERY DEEP)

Dict — hash table implementation. Keys must be hashable (immutable).

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 42

 Creation:

d = {'name': 'Rahul', 'age': 25}

d = dict(name='Rahul', age=25)

d = dict([('a', 1), ('b', 2)]) # from list of tuples

keys = ['a','b','c']; vals = [1,2,3]

d = dict(zip(keys, vals)) # {'a':1,'b':2,'c':3}

Access & Modification:

d['name'] # 'Rahul' (KeyError if missing)

[Link]('name') # 'Rahul' (None if missing — safe!)

[Link]('x', 'N/A') # 'N/A' (default value)

d['age'] = 26 # update

d['city'] = 'Delhi' # add new key

del d['age'] # delete key

Dict Methods:

[Link]() # dict_keys — view of keys

[Link]() # dict_values — view of values

[Link]() # dict_items — (key,val) tuples

[Link]({'x': 1, 'y': 2}) # merge

[Link]('key') # remove and return value

[Link]() # remove last inserted (3.7+)

[Link]('z', 0) # set key if not exists

[Link]() # shallow copy

[Link]() # empty dict

Dict comprehension:

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 43

 squares = {x: x**2 for x in range(6)}

# {0:0, 1:1, 2:4, 3:9, 4:16, 5:25}

Merging dicts (Python 3.9+):

a = {'x': 1}; b = {'y': 2}

c = a | b # {'x':1, 'y':2}

a |= b # update a in place

Nested dicts:

students = {

'Alice': {'age': 20, 'grade': 'A'},

'Bob': {'age': 22, 'grade': 'B'},

print(students['Alice']['grade']) # 'A'

defaultdict (never KeyError):

from collections import defaultdict

word_count = defaultdict(int)

for word in 'hello world hello'.split():

word_count[word] += 1

# defaultdict(int, {'hello': 2, 'world': 1})

Counter:

from collections import Counter

c = Counter('banana')

# Counter({'a': 3, 'n': 2, 'b': 1})

c.most_common(2) # [('a',3), ('n',2)]

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 44

 OrderedDict:

from collections import OrderedDict

od = OrderedDict()

# Maintains insertion order (all dicts do in Python 3.7+)

Practice Questions

1. List vs Tuple — when to use which? 2. Why can't you use a list as a dictionary key? 3. How does set handle
duplicate values? 4. What is the time complexity of dict lookup, list search, and set search? 5. Explain defaultdict with
a practical example. 6. What is a shallow copy vs deep copy of a list? 7. How do you sort a dictionary by its values?
8. What does [Link]() do? Coding Challenges: C1. Given a list of words, find the most frequent word using a
dictionary. C2. Given two lists, write a function that returns their intersection, union, and difference.

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 45

 MODULE
08 File Handling

Reading & Writing Files

File modes:

'r' read (default) — file must exist

'w' write — creates/overwrites file

'a' append — adds to end of file

'x' exclusive create — fails if file exists

'rb' read binary

'wb' write binary

'r+' read and write

Reading:

with open('[Link]', 'r') as f:

content = [Link]() # entire file as string

lines = [Link]() # list of lines (with \n)

line = [Link]() # one line at a time

# Iterate line by line (memory-efficient):

with open('[Link]') as f:

for line in f:

print([Link]())

Writing:

with open('[Link]', 'w') as f:

[Link]('Hello World\n')

[Link](['Line1\n', 'Line2\n'])

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 46

 Appending:

with open('[Link]', 'a') as f:

[Link]('New log entry\n')

Always use 'with' statement — auto-closes file even if error occurs!

Working with paths (pathlib — modern way):

from pathlib import Path

p = Path('data/[Link]')

p.read_text() # read file

p.write_text('Hello') # write file

[Link]() # check existence

[Link] # '.txt'

[Link] # 'file'

[Link] # Path('data')

CSV, JSON, os Module

CSV files:

import csv

# Write:

with open('[Link]', 'w', newline='') as f:

writer = [Link](f)

[Link](['Name', 'Age'])

[Link]([['Alice', 25], ['Bob', 30]])

# Read:

with open('[Link]') as f:

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 47

 reader = [Link](f)

for row in reader:

print(row['Name'], row['Age'])

JSON files:

import json

data = {'name': 'Rahul', 'scores': [90, 85, 92]}

# Write:

with open('[Link]', 'w') as f:

[Link](data, f, indent=4)

# Read:

with open('[Link]') as f:

loaded = [Link](f)

# String:

s = [Link](data) # to string

d = [Link](s) # from string

os module:

import os

[Link]() # current directory

[Link]('.') # list files

[Link]('a/b/c') # create nested dirs

[Link]('a','[Link]')# 'a/[Link]' (cross-platform)

[Link]('[Link]')

[Link]('[Link]', '[Link]')

[Link]('[Link]')

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 48

 Practice Questions

1. Why should you always use 'with' when opening files? 2. What is the difference between 'w' and 'a' mode? 3. How
do you read a file line by line without loading all into memory? 4. How do you handle a file that might not exist? 5.
What is the difference between [Link] and [Link]? Coding Challenges: C1. Write a word frequency counter
that reads a .txt file and outputs the top 10 words. C2. Create a simple student grade manager using CSV read/write.

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 49

 MODULE
09 Exception Handling

try / except / else / finally

Exceptions — runtime errors that break program flow.

Basic try-except:

try:

x = int(input('Enter number: '))

print(10 / x)

except ValueError:

print('Invalid input!')

except ZeroDivisionError:

print('Cannot divide by zero!')

Multiple exceptions in one line:

except (ValueError, TypeError) as e:

print(f'Error: {e}')

Catch all (avoid in production):

except Exception as e:

print(f'Unexpected error: {e}')

else — runs if NO exception occurred:

try:

result = 10 / 2

except ZeroDivisionError:

print('Error!')

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 50

 else:

print(f'Result: {result}') # runs

finally — ALWAYS runs (cleanup code):

try:

f = open('[Link]')

data = [Link]()

except FileNotFoundError:

print('File missing!')

finally:

print('Done') # runs always

Custom Exceptions & Exception Hierarchy

Common built-in exceptions:

ValueError — wrong value type

TypeError — wrong type

IndexError — list index out of range

KeyError — dict key not found

AttributeError — object has no attribute

NameError — variable not defined

FileNotFoundError — file missing

ZeroDivisionError — divide by zero

OverflowError — numeric result too large

RecursionError — max recursion exceeded

StopIteration — iterator exhausted

ImportError — module not found

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 51

 RuntimeError — generic runtime error

Custom exception classes:

class InsufficientFundsError(Exception):

def __init__(self, amount, balance):

[Link] = amount

[Link] = balance

super().__init__(

f'Cannot withdraw {amount}, balance is {balance}')

def withdraw(balance, amount):

if amount > balance:

raise InsufficientFundsError(amount, balance)

return balance - amount

try:

withdraw(100, 200)

except InsufficientFundsError as e:

print(e)

raise — manually trigger exception:

def divide(a, b):

if b == 0:

raise ValueError('b cannot be zero')

return a / b

raise...from (exception chaining):

try:

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 52

 int('abc')

except ValueError as e:

raise RuntimeError('Conversion failed') from e

Practice Questions

1. What is the difference between except Exception and except BaseException? 2. When does the else block in
try-except run? 3. Is finally always guaranteed to run? (Think: os._exit()) 4. What is exception chaining? Use
raise...from. 5. How do you create a custom exception class? Coding Challenges: C1. Write a safe integer input
function that keeps asking until valid input is provided. C2. Create a BankAccount class with custom exceptions for
overdraft and invalid deposits.

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 53

 MODULE Object-Oriented Programming —
10
Complete Guide

Class & Object Basics

OOP — real-world entities ko code mein model karna.

Class = blueprint, Object = instance of class.

class Animal:

# Class variable (shared by all instances)

kingdom = 'Animalia'

def __init__(self, name, sound):

# Instance variables (unique to each object)

[Link] = name

[Link] = sound

def speak(self):

return f'{[Link]} says {[Link]}'

def __str__(self):

return f'Animal({[Link]})'

# Create objects:

dog = Animal('Dog', 'Woof')

cat = Animal('Cat', 'Meow')

print([Link]()) # Dog says Woof

print([Link]) # Animalia

print([Link]) # Animalia (inherited from class)

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 54

 Inheritance (All Types)

Inheritance — ek class dusri class ki properties inherit karti hai.

Single Inheritance:

class Dog(Animal):

def __init__(self, name, breed):

super().__init__(name, 'Woof') # call parent

[Link] = breed

def fetch(self):

return f'{[Link]} fetches the ball!'

buddy = Dog('Buddy', 'Labrador')

print([Link]()) # inherited method

print([Link]()) # new method

Multiple Inheritance:

class Flyable:

def fly(self): return 'Flying!'

class Swimmable:

def swim(self): return 'Swimming!'

class Duck(Animal, Flyable, Swimmable):

pass

d = Duck('Duck', 'Quack')

print([Link]()) # Flying!

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 55

 print([Link]()) # Swimming!

MRO (Method Resolution Order):

print(Duck.__mro__) # C3 linearization algorithm

Multilevel Inheritance:

class Animal: ...

class Dog(Animal): ...

class Puppy(Dog): ...

isinstance() and issubclass():

isinstance(buddy, Dog) # True

isinstance(buddy, Animal) # True (Dog inherits Animal)

issubclass(Dog, Animal) # True

Encapsulation & Properties

Encapsulation — data ko hide karna, controlled access dena.

Access modifiers:

[Link] # public — accessible anywhere

self._name # protected — convention: don't access outside

self.__name # private — name mangling applies

class BankAccount:

def __init__(self, owner, balance):

[Link] = owner

self.__balance = balance # private

@property

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 56

 def balance(self):

return self.__balance

@[Link]

def balance(self, amount):

if amount < 0:

raise ValueError('Balance cannot be negative')

self.__balance = amount

def deposit(self, amount):

if amount <= 0:

raise ValueError('Deposit must be positive')

self.__balance += amount

acc = BankAccount('Rahul', 1000)

print([Link]) # 1000 (via property getter)

[Link] = 2000 # calls setter

[Link] = -100 # raises ValueError!

Polymorphism & Abstraction

Polymorphism — same interface, different behavior.

Method Overriding:

class Shape:

def area(self):

raise NotImplementedError

class Circle(Shape):

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 57

 def __init__(self, r): self.r = r

def area(self): return 3.14 * self.r ** 2

class Rectangle(Shape):

def __init__(self, w, h): self.w, self.h = w, h

def area(self): return self.w * self.h

shapes = [Circle(5), Rectangle(4, 6)]

for s in shapes:

print([Link]()) # polymorphic call!

Abstract Base Classes (ABC):

from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

class Shape(ABC):

@abstractmethod

def area(self): pass

@abstractmethod

def perimeter(self): pass

# Shape() → TypeError! Cannot instantiate abstract class

# Subclass MUST implement area() and perimeter()

Duck Typing — 'If it walks like a duck...'

def make_it_speak(animal):

[Link]() # works for any object with speak()

# Python cares about behavior, not type!

Magic / Dunder Methods

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 58

 Dunder methods — double underscore se start/end. Python ka protocol.

class Vector:

def __init__(self, x, y):

self.x, self.y = x, y

def __repr__(self): # developer repr

return f'Vector({self.x}, {self.y})'

def __str__(self): # user-friendly string

return f'({self.x}, {self.y})'

def __add__(self, other): # + operator

return Vector(self.x + other.x, self.y + other.y)

def __sub__(self, other): # - operator

return Vector(self.x - other.x, self.y - other.y)

def __mul__(self, scalar): # * operator

return Vector(self.x * scalar, self.y * scalar)

def __len__(self): # len()

return int((self.x**2 + self.y**2)**0.5)

def __eq__(self, other): # == operator

return self.x == other.x and self.y == other.y

def __lt__(self, other): # < operator

return len(self) < len(other)

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 59

 def __bool__(self): # bool()

return self.x != 0 or self.y != 0

def __getitem__(self, index): # v[0], v[1]

return (self.x, self.y)[index]

def __iter__(self): # for x in v

yield self.x

yield self.y

def __contains__(self, val): # 'in' operator

return val in (self.x, self.y)

v1 = Vector(3, 4)

v2 = Vector(1, 2)

print(v1 + v2) # (4, 6)

print(len(v1)) # 5 (3-4-5 triangle)

print(v1[0]) # 3

print(3 in v1) # True

Class Methods, Static Methods, Properties

@classmethod — takes cls (class itself) as first arg:

class Employee:

company = 'TechCorp'

employee_count = 0

def __init__(self, name, salary):

[Link] = name

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 60

 [Link] = salary

Employee.employee_count += 1

@classmethod

def from_string(cls, emp_str):

name, salary = emp_str.split('-')

return cls(name, int(salary))

@classmethod

def get_count(cls):

return cls.employee_count

@staticmethod

def validate_salary(s):

return s > 0

e = Employee.from_string('Rahul-50000') # alt constructor

print(Employee.get_count()) # 1

print(Employee.validate_salary(50000)) # True

Practice Questions

1. What is the difference between class variable and instance variable? 2. Explain MRO and the diamond problem in
multiple inheritance. 3. What is the difference between __str__ and __repr__? 4. When would you use
@classmethod vs @staticmethod? 5. Explain Python's name mangling for private attributes. 6. What is duck typing?
How is it different from strict type checking? 7. What is the difference between isinstance() and type()? 8. How does
@property work? What problem does it solve? Coding Challenges: C1. Design a full Library Management System
with Book, Member, and Library classes. C2. Create a Vector class supporting all arithmetic operators and
comparison.

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 61

 MODULE
11 Advanced Python Concepts

List Comprehension (Deep)

List comprehension — concise way to create lists.

Syntax: [expression for item in iterable if condition]

Basic:

squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]

With condition:

evens = [x for x in range(20) if x % 2 == 0]

Nested:

matrix = [[i*j for j in range(1,4)] for i in range(1,4)]

# [[1,2,3],[2,4,6],[3,6,9]]

Flatten nested list:

nested = [[1,2,3],[4,5],[6]]

flat = [x for sublist in nested for x in sublist]

# [1,2,3,4,5,6]

Dict comprehension:

{k: v for k, v in zip('abc', [1,2,3])}

# {'a':1, 'b':2, 'c':3}

Set comprehension:

{x**2 for x in [-2,-1,0,1,2]}

# {0, 1, 4}

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 62

 Generator expression (lazy — no list created):

gen = (x**2 for x in range(1000000)) # no memory usage!

print(next(gen)) # 0

print(sum(gen)) # rest of squares

Ternary in comprehension:

labels = ['even' if x%2==0 else 'odd' for x in range(6)]

# ['even','odd','even','odd','even','odd']

Generators & Iterators

Iterator — object with __iter__() and __next__() methods.

Generator — function that uses 'yield' to produce values lazily.

Custom iterator:

class CountUp:

def __init__(self, start, end):

[Link] = start

[Link] = end

def __iter__(self):

return self

def __next__(self):

if [Link] > [Link]:

raise StopIteration

val = [Link]

[Link] += 1

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 63

 return val

for n in CountUp(1, 5):

print(n) # 1 2 3 4 5

Generator function:

def fibonacci():

a, b = 0, 1

while True:

yield a

a, b = b, a + b

fib = fibonacci()

for _ in range(10):

print(next(fib)) # 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34

yield from:

def chain(*iterables):

for it in iterables:

yield from it

list(chain([1,2],[3,4])) # [1,2,3,4]

send() — two-way generator communication:

def accumulator():

total = 0

while True:

value = yield total

total += value

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 64

 acc = accumulator()

next(acc) # prime the generator

[Link](10) # 10

[Link](20) # 30

Decorators

Decorator — function jo doosri function ko wrap karta hai. Adds behavior.

Basic decorator:

def timer(func):

import time

def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):

start = [Link]()

result = func(*args, **kwargs)

end = [Link]()

print(f'{func.__name__} ran in {end-start:.4f}s')

return result

return wrapper

@timer

def slow_function():

import time; [Link](1)

slow_function() # slow_function ran in 1.0001s

[Link] — preserve function metadata:

from functools import wraps

def timer(func):

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 65

 @wraps(func) # preserves __name__, __doc__

def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):

...

return wrapper

Decorator with arguments:

def repeat(times):

def decorator(func):

@wraps(func)

def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):

for _ in range(times):

func(*args, **kwargs)

return wrapper

return decorator

@repeat(3)

def say_hello():

print('Hello!')

say_hello() # prints Hello! 3 times

Stacking decorators:

@timer

@repeat(2)

def greet(): print('Hi!')

# Applied bottom-up: repeat first, then timer

Class decorators:

class Singleton:

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 66

 _instances = {}

def __call__(self, cls):

if cls not in self._instances:

self._instances[cls] = cls()

return self._instances[cls]

Context Managers

Context manager — 'with' statement ke saath use hota hai.

Ensures setup/teardown happens even if error occurs.

Using [Link]:

from contextlib import contextmanager

@contextmanager

def timer():

import time

start = [Link]()

try:

yield # code in 'with' block runs here

finally:

print(f'Time: {[Link]()-start:.2f}s')

with timer():

import time; [Link](1)

# Time: 1.00s

Class-based context manager:

class DatabaseConnection:

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 67

 def __init__(self, url):

[Link] = url

def __enter__(self):

print(f'Connecting to {[Link]}')

return self # value returned to 'as' variable

def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb):

print('Disconnecting...')

# return True to suppress exceptions

return False

with DatabaseConnection('localhost:5432') as db:

print('Executing query...')

Regex (Regular Expressions)

Regex — pattern matching for strings.

import re

Basic patterns:

. any char except newline

^ start of string

$ end of string

* 0 or more

+ 1 or more

? 0 or 1

\d digit [0-9]

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 68

 \w word char [a-zA-Z0-9_]

\s whitespace

\D non-digit

[] character class

| OR

() group

{n} exactly n times

{m,n} between m and n times

Functions:

[Link](pattern, string) # match at START only

[Link](pattern, string) # first match anywhere

[Link](pattern, string) # list of all matches

[Link](pattern, string) # iterator of match objects

[Link](pattern, repl, string)# replace matches

[Link](pattern, string) # split by pattern

[Link](pattern) # compile for reuse

Examples:

# Validate email:

pattern = r'^[a-zA-Z0-9._%+-]+@[a-zA-Z0-9.-]+\.[a-zA-Z]{2,}$'

[Link](pattern, 'user@[Link]') # Match object

# Extract phone numbers:

phones = [Link](r'\d{10}', 'Call 9876543210 or 8765432109')

# ['9876543210', '8765432109']

# Replace whitespace:

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 69

 [Link](r'\s+', ' ', 'hello world') # 'hello world'

# Groups:

m = [Link](r'(\d+)-(\d+)', 'Phone: 123-456')

[Link](1) # '123'

[Link](2) # '456'

Multithreading & Multiprocessing

Threading — I/O-bound tasks ke liye (file, network, DB).

Multiprocessing — CPU-bound tasks ke liye (computation).

Threading:

import threading

def download(url):

print(f'Downloading {url}...')

import time; [Link](2)

print(f'Done: {url}')

urls = ['url1', 'url2', 'url3']

threads = [[Link](target=download, args=(u,)) for u in urls]

for t in threads: [Link]()

for t in threads: [Link]() # wait for all

# Thread-safe counter using Lock:

lock = [Link]()

counter = 0

def safe_increment():

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 70

 global counter

with lock:

counter += 1

Multiprocessing:

from multiprocessing import Pool

def cpu_task(n):

return sum(i**2 for i in range(n))

with Pool(processes=4) as pool:

results = [Link](cpu_task, [10**6, 10**6, 10**6, 10**6])

GIL (Global Interpreter Lock):

Python ke threads CANNOT run Python code in parallel due to GIL.

For CPU-bound: use multiprocessing or [Link].

For I/O-bound: threading is fine (GIL released during I/O).

[Link] (high-level):

from [Link] import ThreadPoolExecutor

with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as executor:

futures = [[Link](download, u) for u in urls]

results = [[Link]() for f in futures]

Practice Questions

1. What is the difference between a generator and a list comprehension? 2. How does yield differ from return? 3.
Explain the decorator pattern — why use it? 4. What is the GIL? How does it affect multithreading? 5. Difference
between threading and multiprocessing? 6. What is a context manager and when would you write your own? 7. What
is [Link] vs [Link]? Coding Challenges: C1. Write a retry decorator that retries a function up to N times if it
raises an exception. C2. Create an infinite Fibonacci generator and use it to print the first 20 numbers.

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 71

 MODULE
12 Libraries — NumPy & Pandas

NumPy Basics

NumPy — Numerical Python. Fast array operations using C under the hood.

import numpy as np

Creating arrays:

[Link]([1, 2, 3, 4]) # 1D array

[Link]([[1,2],[3,4]]) # 2D array (matrix)

[Link]((3, 4)) # 3x4 zeros

[Link]((2, 3)) # 2x3 ones

[Link](3) # 3x3 identity matrix

[Link](0, 10, 2) # [0,2,4,6,8]

[Link](0, 1, 5) # [0,.25,.5,.75,1.0]

[Link](3, 3) # random floats [0,1)

[Link](0, 100, (3,3)) # random ints

Array properties:

a = [Link]([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]])

[Link] # (2, 3)

[Link] # 2

[Link] # 6

[Link] # int64

Operations (vectorized — no loops needed!):

a = [Link]([1,2,3,4])

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 72

 a * 2 # [2,4,6,8]

a ** 2 # [1,4,9,16]

[Link](a) # element-wise sqrt

a + a # [2,4,6,8]

Indexing & slicing:

m = [Link]([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])

m[1, 2] # 6

m[:, 1] # [2,5,8] — column 1

m[0:2, 0:2] # [[1,2],[4,5]] — submatrix

Boolean indexing:

a[a > 2] # [3,4] — filter by condition

Math operations:

[Link](m), [Link](m), [Link](m)

[Link](m), [Link](m)

[Link](m, axis=0) # column sums

[Link](m, axis=1) # row sums

Pandas Basics

Pandas — data manipulation and analysis. Built on NumPy.

import pandas as pd

Series (1D labeled array):

s = [Link]([10, 20, 30], index=['a','b','c'])

s['a'] # 10

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 73

 s[s > 15] # b 20, c 30

DataFrame (2D table):

data = {

'Name': ['Alice','Bob','Charlie'],

'Age': [25, 30, 35],

'City': ['Delhi','Mumbai','Bangalore']

df = [Link](data)

Reading data:

df = pd.read_csv('[Link]')

df = pd.read_excel('[Link]')

df = pd.read_json('[Link]')

Exploration:

[Link](5) # first 5 rows

[Link](5) # last 5 rows

[Link]() # column types, nulls

[Link]() # statistics

[Link] # (rows, cols)

[Link] # column names

[Link] # column data types

Selection:

df['Name'] # single column (Series)

df[['Name','Age']] # multiple columns

[Link][0] # first row by position

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 74

 [Link][0, 'Name'] # by label

df[df['Age'] > 28] # filter rows

Data cleaning:

[Link]().sum() # count nulls per column

[Link]() # drop rows with any null

[Link](0) # fill nulls with 0

df.drop_duplicates() # remove duplicate rows

df['Age'] = df['Age'].astype(int)

Aggregation:

[Link]('City')['Age'].mean()

[Link]('City').agg({'Age': ['mean','max']})

df.pivot_table(values='Age', index='City', aggfunc='mean')

Saving:

df.to_csv('[Link]', index=False)

df.to_excel('[Link]', index=False)

Practice Questions

1. Why is NumPy faster than Python lists for numerical operations? 2. What is broadcasting in NumPy? 3. Difference
between loc and iloc in Pandas? 4. How do you handle missing data in Pandas? 5. What does groupby() return? How
is it used? Coding Challenges: C1. Load a CSV file, find the top 5 rows by a numeric column, and save to new CSV.
C2. Create a NumPy matrix multiplication function and verify against [Link]().

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 75

 MODULE
13 Real-World Mini Projects

Project 1: Calculator (CLI)

def calculator():

print('=== Python Calculator ===')

print('Operations: + - * / // % **')

while True:

try:

expression = input('\nEnter expression (or q to quit): ')

if [Link]() == 'q':

print('Goodbye!')

break

# Safe eval using restricted globals:

result = eval(expression, {'__builtins__': {}},

{'abs': abs, 'round': round})

print(f'Result: {result}')

except ZeroDivisionError:

print('Error: Division by zero!')

except Exception as e:

print(f'Invalid expression: {e}')

if __name__ == '__main__':

calculator()

Project 2: Password Generator

import random

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 76

 import string

def generate_password(length=12, use_upper=True,

use_digits=True, use_symbols=True):

chars = string.ascii_lowercase

if use_upper: chars += string.ascii_uppercase

if use_digits: chars += [Link]

if use_symbols: chars += [Link]

# Ensure at least one of each required type:

password = []

if use_upper: [Link]([Link](string.ascii_uppercase))

if use_digits: [Link]([Link]([Link]))

if use_symbols: [Link]([Link]([Link]))

[Link]([Link](string.ascii_lowercase))

while len(password) < length:

[Link]([Link](chars))

[Link](password)

return ''.join(password)

def main():

print('=== Password Generator ===')

length = int(input('Password length (default 12): ') or 12)

n = int(input('How many passwords? ') or 5)

for i in range(n):

print(f' {i+1}. {generate_password(length)}')

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 77

 if __name__ == '__main__':

main()

Project 3: File Organizer

import os

import shutil

from pathlib import Path

CATEGORIES = {

'Images': ['.jpg','.jpeg','.png','.gif','.bmp','.svg'],

'Videos': ['.mp4','.mov','.avi','.mkv'],

'Documents': ['.pdf','.doc','.docx','.txt','.xlsx','.pptx'],

'Audio': ['.mp3','.wav','.flac','.aac'],

'Code': ['.py','.js','.html','.css','.java','.cpp'],

'Archives': ['.zip','.tar','.gz','.rar'],

'Others': []

def get_category(extension):

for category, exts in [Link]():

if [Link]() in exts:

return category

return 'Others'

def organize_folder(folder_path):

folder = Path(folder_path)

moved = 0

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 78

 for file in [Link]():

if file.is_file():

category = get_category([Link])

dest = folder / category

[Link](exist_ok=True)

[Link](str(file), str(dest / [Link]))

moved += 1

print(f' Moved {[Link]} → {category}/')

print(f'\nOrganized {moved} files!')

if __name__ == '__main__':

path = input('Enter folder path to organize: ')

organize_folder(path)

Project 4: CLI Todo App

import json

from pathlib import Path

from datetime import datetime

TODO_FILE = Path('[Link]')

def load_todos():

if TODO_FILE.exists():

return [Link](TODO_FILE.read_text())

return []

def save_todos(todos):

TODO_FILE.write_text([Link](todos, indent=2))

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 79

 def add_todo(title, priority='medium'):

todos = load_todos()

todo = {

'id': len(todos) + 1,

'title': title,

'done': False,

'priority': priority,

'created': [Link]().isoformat()

[Link](todo)

save_todos(todos)

print(f'Added: {title}')

def list_todos():

todos = load_todos()

if not todos:

print('No todos!')

return

for t in todos:

status = '[x]' if t['done'] else '[ ]'

print(f"{t['id']}. {status} [{t['priority'].upper()}] {t['title']}")

def main():

print('=== Python Todo App ===')

while True:

print('\n1. List 2. Add 3. Complete 4. Quit')

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 80

 choice = input('Choose: ')

if choice == '1': list_todos()

elif choice == '2':

title = input('Task: ')

priority = input('Priority (low/medium/high): ') or 'medium'

add_todo(title, priority)

elif choice == '4': break

if __name__ == '__main__':

main()

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 81

 MODULE Revision Cheatsheet & Top Interview
14
Questions

Python Cheatsheet — Quick Reference

DATA TYPES: int, float, complex, str, bool, None list [], tuple (), set {}, dict {k:v}, frozenset STRING TRICKS: s[::-1] #
reverse [Link]() # split on whitespace ' '.join(lst) # join list f'{val:.2f}' # 2 decimal places [Link]() # remove whitespace
LIST TRICKS: sorted(lst, key=lambda x: x[1]) # sort by 2nd element lst[::-1] # reverse list(set(lst)) # deduplicate [x for
x in lst if condition] # filter DICT TRICKS: {v:k for k,v in [Link]()} # invert dict sorted(d, key=[Link]) # sort by value
[Link](k, default) # safe access FUNCTIONS: lambda x: x**2 map(func, lst) filter(func, lst) zip(lst1, lst2) enumerate(lst,
start=1) OOP: class A(B): pass # inheritance super().__init__() # parent constructor @property # getter
@staticmethod @classmethod __str__, __repr__, __len__, __eq__ COMPREHENSIONS: [x**2 for x in range(10)]
{k:v for k,v in items} {x for x in lst} (x for x in lst) # generator EXCEPTION HANDLING: try/except/else/finally raise
ValueError('msg') class CustomError(Exception): pass USEFUL MODULES: os, sys, pathlib, json, csv collections
(Counter, defaultdict, deque) itertools, functools, datetime re, math, random, string

Top 30 Python Interview Questions

1. What are Python's key features? (interpreted, dynamically typed, GC, OOP) 2. Mutable vs immutable types? 3.
What is the GIL? How does it affect performance? 4. Difference between deepcopy and shallow copy? 5. What are
Python decorators? Write one from scratch. 6. Explain generators vs list comprehensions. 7. What is *args and
**kwargs? 8. Explain LEGB scope rule. 9. What is a closure? Write an example. 10. Difference between __str__ and
__repr__? 11. What is method resolution order (MRO)? 12. What is duck typing? 13. Explain the difference between
is and ==. 14. What is a lambda function? Limitations? 15. What are context managers? How to write one? 16.
Difference between @staticmethod and @classmethod? 17. How does Python manage memory? (reference
counting + GC) 18. What is monkey patching? 19. What are metaclasses? 20. Explain list comprehension vs
map/filter. 21. How to make a class iterable? 22. What is a named tuple? Advantages? 23. Explain
try/except/else/finally flow. 24. What is a Singleton pattern? Implement it. 25. What is pickling/unpickling? 26. How do
you profile Python code? 27. Difference between threading and multiprocessing? 28. What is asyncio? When to use
it? 29. Explain Python's garbage collection. 30. What are dataclasses? (Python 3.7+) Bonus: from dataclasses import
dataclass @dataclass class Point: x: float y: float def distance(self): return (self.x**2 + self.y**2)**0.5

Project Ideas for Your Portfolio

BEGINNER: • Number guessing game • Simple quiz app • Unit converter • Rock-Paper-Scissors • Basic calculator
INTERMEDIATE: • Web scraper (BeautifulSoup/requests) • Weather app (API integration) • Personal finance tracker
(Pandas + CSV) • URL shortener (Flask) • CLI task manager (argparse) • PDF text extractor ADVANCED: • REST
API (FastAPI + SQLAlchemy) • ML model deployment (Flask + scikit-learn) • Telegram bot (python-telegram-bot) •
Automated trading strategy backtester • Real-time chat app (websockets) • Image classification
(TensorFlow/PyTorch) • Distributed web crawler DATA SCIENCE: • EDA on Kaggle dataset (Pandas + Matplotlib) •
Stock price predictor (LSTM) • Sentiment analysis • Customer segmentation (K-Means) • Recommendation system

Zero to Advanced Python Course Page 82