Module-I
Introduction to environmental engineering and role of environmental engineers-
enhancing natural purification processes in an engineered environment-public
health perspective for treating water and waste water
Water quantity estimation: Population forecast- water demand estimation-types
of demand- demand fluctuation
Estimation for waste water quantity: Dry weather flow and storm water flow-
population equivalent-design period
Collection and conveyance: water intake structures- -gravity flow and pressure flow
systems-
Systems of sewerage: separate and combined-types of pumps for water and
waste water conveyance
Prepared By
Dr. Minimol Pieus T
1
Introduction to Environment
• Word is derived from French word ‘Environ’
meaning encircle
• Defined as “the complete abiotic & biotic factors
affecting an organism and ultimately determining
its form and survival”
• Environment comprises both biotic and abiotic
factors
• Biotic (living things) – plants, animals, birds,
micro-organisms, etc.
• Abiotic (non-living) – light, air, water,
temperature, humidity, soil etc.
2
Types of environment
• Natural Environment- gifted by God and is
operated by self regulation mechanism
• Biosphere- space occupied by life
• Atmosphere- space occupied by air
• Lithosphere- space occupied by land
• Hydrosphere- space occupied by water
• Man-made Environment- through modifications
in natural environment for fulfilling their needs-
dams, canals, roads, industries, buildings etc.
3
Environmental Engineering
• It is the integration of science and engineering
principles to improve the natural environment
to provide healthy water, air and land for
human habitation and for other organisms
and to remediate pollution sites.
• It is the application of engg. principles to the
protection and enhancement of the quality of
environment, public health and public welfare
4
Environmental Engineering contd…
It involves
• Water supply engg.
• Air pollution control
• Solid waste management
• Wastewater engg.
• Waste recycling
• Environmental sustainability
• Public health
• Environmental laws
• Environmental impact assessment 5
ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS
• Creating environmental investigation reports and reviewing
them periodically.
• Designing water and waste water treatment plants, pollution
control systems, water supply systems and waste management
projects.
• Documenting standard operating procedures, so that other
people in the team can follow the action plan, as expected
• Supervising environmental improvement programs.
• Investigating industrial and municipal facilities to check
whether they cooperate with environmental regulations
• Providing recommendations for cleaning contaminated sites
• Spreading awareness about environmental improvement
programs
6
Sources of fresh water
• Surface sources
• ponds and lakes
• streams and rivers
• storage reservoirs
• Subsurface sources
• Springs
• Infiltration galleries
• Infiltration wells
• Open wells and tube wells
7
Springs
• Natural outflow of
ground water at earth
surface
• Outcropping of Ground
Water Table (G.W.T.)
– Gravity spring
– Surface spring
– Artesian spring
Infiltration well
• Shallow wells constructed
in series along the banks
of river to collect river
water seeping through
their bottoms
• Brick masonry with open
joints
• Covered at top and open
at bottom
• Connected by porous
pipes to sump well (jack
well) from where it is
distributed
10
Infiltration gallery
• It is a horizontal tunnel or open ditch that’s
constructed through an aquifer to divert water
from a river or other natural source.
11
12
Wells and Tube wells
• Open well • Tube well
• Bigger dia, small Q (5L/s) • Shallow 30-60m, 20L/s
• Shallow well-rests on • Deep 60-300m. 200L/s
pervious strata and draws • 5 to 30cm dia
its supplies from • A hole bored into the
surrounding materials ground for tapping
• Deep well-rests on ground water from deep
impervious (mota) layer pervious formations
and draws its supplies
from the layer beneath
through a bore hole in
mota layer
13
Characteristics of water
Physical characteristics
• Turbidity
• Colour
• Taste and odours
• Temperature
• Specific conductivity of water
Chemical characteristics
• Total solids and suspended solids
• pH-potential of hydrogen ion
• Alkalinity-bicarbonate , carbonate, hydroxide
• Hardness-temporary (bicarbonate and carbonate of Ca and
Mg) and permanent (sulphate, chloride of Ca and Mg)
• Cholride-Mohr test
• Nitrogen content-ammonia, organic nitrogen, nitrites,
nitrates
• Kjeldahl nitrogen-ammonia + organic nitrogen
• Iron and manganese
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)- oxygen for the
oxidation of carbonaceous material
BOD5 20=loss of O2 after 5 day incubation@20oC in
mg/l(68% of total demand) x dilution factor
15
Biological characteristics
• Nonpathogenic and pathogenic bacteria
• Aerobic, anaerobic, facultative bacteria
• Nonpathogenic indicators- coliform group(total
coliforms and faecal coliforms)
• Faecal coliform- Escherichia coli(E-Coli)
• Membrane filter test-filter through a sterile
membrane, retain bacteria kept in touch with a
nutrient medium and incubated at suitable
temp., characterize the colonies, and count it
– Total coliform- M-Endo broth, 35oC, 20-22hrs- pink to
dark red colonies with golden metallic shean
– Faecal coliforms- M-FC broth, 44.5oC, 22hrs, blue
colonies
• Multiple tube fermentation test(MPN)-coliforms
– Presumptive test(coliforms)-lactose broth, (10ml,1ml,
0.1ml sample), 350C,24hrs, presence of gas indicates
positive result
– Confirmatory test(eliminate bacteria of non sanitary
imp)- brilliant green bile broth, 350C, 48hrs
– Getting the no. of positive test tubes, statistical
methods to determine the bacterial density that has
the max. probability with the given set of constants-
Most Probable Number(MPN)/100ml
• Faecal coliforms- positive tubes from presumptive test
transferred to EC medium broth, 44.5oC,24hrs
Drinking water standards
(IS 10500:2012 )
• Parameters Desirable limit Permissible limit
• Turbidity 1NTU 5NTU
• Taste, odour agreeable
• pH 6.5-8.5
• Hardness 200mg/l 600mg/l
• Alkalinity 200mg/l 600mg/l
• Iron 0.3mg/l no relaxation
• Nitrate 45mg/l no relaxation
• Sulphate 200 mg/l 400mg/l
• Chloride 250mg/l 1000mg/l
• Free residual chlorine, min. 0.2mg/l 1mg/l
• Total dissolved solids 500mg/l 2000mg/l
• Coliforms not detectable
Water borne diseases
• Bacterial infections
• Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever (salmonella
typhi)
• Cholera(vibrio-cholera)
• Bacillary dysentery(shiga bacillus)
• Viral infections
• Infectious hepatitis(hepatitis virus)
• Poliomyelitis(polio virus)
• Protozoal infections
• Amoebic dysentery(entamoeba histolytic germ)
Need for water treatment
• Clean water is a necessity for human health
• Clean water is a finite resource
• Protects the environment
• Helps to meet regulatory guidelines and
standards
• Removes contaminants
• Prepares water for intended use
20
Water Demand
• Water demand is the quantity of water required for
one person per day.
• Size of the water supply scheme ∞ Quantity of water
required by the community (Q)
• Quantity of water required should be known before
designing a water supply project
– Future population is calculated
– Design period –The future period or number of years for
which a provision is made in designing the capacities of
various components of water supply scheme is known as
design period. (normally taken as 30 yrs)
– Rate of demand- quantity of water required per person per
day
– In India it is taken as 135 lpcd
21
Consumption in small Indian towns
• Drinking-5litres
• Cooking-5litres
• Bathing-55litres
• Washing-20litres
• Washing utensils-10litres
• Cleaning house-10litres
• Flushing toilets-30litres
• Total-135litres
22
• Q = Population at the end of design period ×
Per capita water demand
• Per capita water demand =
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑷𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 × 𝟑𝟔𝟓
23
Factors affecting water demand
• Size of city
• Climatic conditions
• Living standards
• Industrial and commercial activities
• Quality of water
• Pressure in distribution system
• Sewerage facilities
• System of supply
• Cost of water
• Policy of metering and method of charging
24
Types of Water demand
• Domestic demand– water required for residential
buildings for drinking, washing , bathing, cooking etc.
50 to 60% of total demand
– As per IS 1172 -1993 for a town with fully flushing system
water required is 200lpcd and for weaker sections it is
135lpcd
• Institutional and commercial demand- water required
for hospitals, hotels, schools, railway stations etc.
– Avg demand is 20-50 lpcd
• Demand for public uses – 5% of total demand avg. -
10lpcd
– Water required for public utility purposes like watering
parks, washing and sprinkling on roads, fountains etc.
25
Water demand contd…
• Industrial demand- water required for industries
– Avg. demand is 50lpcd
• Demand for compensate losses in wastes and thefts –
water lost in leakage due to bad plumbing, meters,
unauthorized connections etc. (15% of total consumption)
• Fire demand- water required for fire fighting. It depends on
the population
– Kuichling formula Q=3182P1/2
– Freeman formula Q=1136[(P/10 )+ 10]
– National Board of Fire Underwriters Q=4637P1/2[1-0.01P1/2]
– Bustons formula Q=5663P1/2
Where P = population in thousands
26
Variations in water demand
• Seasonal or monthly
• Daily
• Hourly variations
27
• Avg. daily demand per capita is obtained by dividing
the quantity of water supplied in a year by the no. of
days in the year and no. of persons served
• Max. daily demand(draft)=1.8x average daily demand
• Peak demand= 1.5times the max. daily consumption
= 1.5xmax. Daily demand
= 1.5x1.8xaverage daily demand
= 2.7x [Link] demand
• Coincident draft- maximum daily demand + fire
demand
28
Population forecasting
• Survey period for population is about 10 years(decennial
census)
Factors affecting population growth:
• Birth rate
• Death rate
• Migration
• Economic factors like new industries, discovery of minerals
or oils
• Development programmes- river valley projects etc.
• Communication links- connections of town with other
cities
• Tourism- tourist facilities, religious places or historical
buildings
• Unforeseen factors-Wars, natural havocs and disasters
29
• When all the varying factors
influences do not produce
extraordinary changes (ideal
condition), Population would
follow the S shaped growth
curve is known as logistic curve
• Early growth AB represents an
increasing rate ie geometric or
log growth
• Middle portion BD follows
arithmetic increase
• DE represents decreasing rate
dP/dt ∞ (Ps-P) 30
Population forecasting methods
• Arithmetic increase method
• Geometric increase method
• Incremental increase method
• Decreasing rate of growth method
• Graphical method
• Comparative graphical method
• Logistic curve method
31
Arithmetic increase method
• The method is based on the assumption that the
population is increasing at a constant rate.
• Best suited for old and settled communities.
• Rate of change of population with time is
constant.
• Population after n decades can be determined by
the formula
• Pn=P0+nx where P0 = latest known population,
• x =Average of population increase per decade
32
Problem
Q. The population of 5 decades from 1930 to
1970 are given below. Find out the population
after 5 decades beyond the last known decade
by using arithmetic increase method.
Year 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
Population 25,000 28,000 34,000 42,000 47,000
Hint- find the increase of population in each decade
Take avg. increase. Substitute in the formula Pn=P0+nx, n=5
33
Incremental increase method (Method
of varying increment)
• Per decade growth rate is progressively increasing
or decreasing depending on whether the average of
incremental increases in past data is +ve or –ve
• It is an extension of arithmetic increase method.
The average increase in the population is
determined by the arithmetical method and to this,
the average of the net incremental increase(y) is
added once for each future decade.
Pn=P0+ nx+ n(n+1) .y
2
34
Problem
P2020= 47000+ 5x5500+ (5x6) 667/2 35
Geometric increase method (Uniform
increase method)
• Percentage growth rate (r) constant
• Increase is compounded over existing population every
decade
• Best suited for young and rapidly growing communities.
• P0- initial population, ie. population at the end of last
known census
• Pn=P0[1+(r/100)]n where n – no. of decades,
r= percentage growth rate, Pn- population after n decades
36
Problem
37
Geometric increase method (Finding r
when only two data is available)
P1 = initial population
P2 = final known population
t = no. of decades between P1 and P2
38
Problem
• Compute the population of the year 2030 and 2036 for
a city whose population in the year 1960 was 25000
and in the year 2000 was 47000. Make use of
geometric increase method.
• t= 4, P1=25000, P2= 47000
• r=17.095%
• Find P2030 & P2036 Use formula Pn=P0[1+(r/100)]n
• Ans=75459 & 82954
39
Decreasing rate of growth method
• Since the rate of increase in population goes
on reducing as the cities reach towards
saturation
• The average decrease in the percentage
increase is worked out
• Then subtract from the latest percentage
increase for each successive decade
40
• Q. The population of 4 decades from 1940 to
1970 are given below. Find out the population
after 3 decades beyond the last known decade
by using decreasing rate method.
Year 1940 1950 1960 1970
Population 80000 1,20,000 1,68,000 2,28,580
41
42
Simple graphical method
• Graph is plotted from the available data between
time and population. The curve is then smoothly
extended up to the desired year
43
Comparative graphical method
• Select cities A,B,C,D having conditions and characteristics
similar to the city X whose population to be estimated
• The curve for city X carefully extended between the curve
of A,B,C,D allowing it to be influenced more by the rates of
growth of cities which are more similar to the city X
44
Logistic curve method
45
Logistic curve method contd
• A mathematical solution for logistic curve by Verhulst
• Curve AD represented by a 1st order eq
• P0 =P at start oint of curve
• Ps =saturation population
• P=population at any time t from origin A
• K=constant
46
Logistic curve method contd…
47
According to McLean
• Let P0,P1,P2 be the population at t0,t1,t2 where t2=2t1
48
Problem
• In two periods of each of 20 yrs, a city has grown
from 30000 to 170000 and 300000. Determine
the saturation population and the equation of the
logistic curve.
• P0=30,000 t=0
• P1= 1,70,000 t1=20yrs
• P2 =3,00,000 t2=40yrs
• Find Ps, m and n and substitute in the equation
for P
• Ans: Ps=3,26,000 m=9.87 n=-0.119
49
Self purification of streams
• When the wastewater or effluents is discharged into natural body of
water, the receiving water gets polluted due to the waste products,
present in the sewage effluent.
• But the conditions do not remain so for ever, because the natural
forces of purification, such as dilution, sedimentation, oxidation,
reductions etc. go on acting upon the pollutants and bring back the
water into original condition.
• This automatic purification of polluted water, in due course of time
is called the self purification.
50
Natural forces of purification (Actions
involved in self purification)
Physical forces
• Dilution and dispersion
• Sedimentation
• Sunlight
Chemical forces (aided by biological forces
called bio-chemical forces)
• Oxidation
• Reduction
51
Factors on which natural forces of
purification depend
• Temperature
• Turbulence
• Hydrography
• Available DO
• Amount and type of organic matter
• Rate of re-aeration
52
Zones of pollution in a river stream
1. Zone of degradation
2. Zone of active decomposition
3. Zone of recovery
4. Zone of clearer water
53
54
Intakes
• To help in safely withdrawing water from the
source and then to discharge into withdrawal
pipe which leads to treatment plant
• It is a masonry or concrete structure with an
aim of providing clear water free from
pollution, sand and objectionable floating
materials
• Constructed at entrance of withdrawal pipe,
protect the pipe from damage
55
Factors affecting the location of intake
• Site should be near treatment plant
• In purer zone of the source
• Never in the d/s of disposal of wastewater
• Never be near the navigation channel
• Permit greater withdrawal of water
• At a place where it can draw water even during driest
period of the year
• Site should not get flooded and remain easily
accessible
• In meandering rivers intakes should not be located on
curves.
56
Gravity and Pressure flow conveyance
systems
• Gravity flow system uses gravity to move water
from a source to a destination without the need
for pumps or external power. Water flows
because of the difference in levels . Eg. Sewage
pipes are designed to flow under gravity
• Pressure flow system is a system where fluid flow
from a high pressure area to low pressure area.
As fluid pressure increases, so does the fluid
velocity. Water supply pipes carry pumped water
which is under pressure.
57
General terms related to wastewater
• Sewage : Liquid waste produced by a
community.
• Sewer :Underground conduit or drain through
which sewage is carried to a point of discharge
or disposal.
• Sewerage: System of collecting and carrying
sewage by water carriage system through
sewers. (Infra structure)
58
Classification of wastewater
59
Types of Sewage
• Domestic Sewage:
Liquid wastes originating from urinals, latrines,
bathrooms, kitchen sinks, wash basins etc. of the
residential, commercial or institutional buildings.
Extremely foul due to the presence of human excreta.
• Industrial Sewage:
Liquid wastes originating from industrial processes of
various industries.
Quality of industrial waste depends upon the type of
industry and chemicals used in their process waters.
60
• Sanitary Sewage:
Sum total of Domestic and Industrial Sewage
Also termed as Dry Weather Flow (DWF)
• Storm drainage :
The run- off resulting from the rain storms is called
storm sewage
Modern approach is to call it storm drainage or
drainage
61
Formation of wastewater
• Water supplied to the public for domestic purposes by
the local authority
• Water supplied to the various industries for various
industrial processes by the local authority
• Water supplied by the local authority to various public
places such as schools, hotels, railway stations etc.
• Water drawn from wells by individual houses for their
domestic purposes
• Water drawn from wells, lakes, canals etc. by industries
for their purposes
• Infiltration of groundwater into sewers through leaky
joints
• Storm runoff 62
Wastewater Flow
– Dry Weather Flow (DWF)/ Sanitary sewage
• Flow through the sewers that would normally be
available during non rainfall periods
• Mainly consists of Domestic sewage and industrial
wastewater
– Wet Weather Flow (WWF)/ Storm water flow
• Additional flow that would occur during the rainy
season
• It consists of runoff available from roofs, streets,
yards, open spaces etc during rain fall
63
Estimation of quantity of
Wastewater(DWF)(sanitary sewage)
Net quantity of Sewage Produced = quantity of water supplied from
the water works + Additions- Subtractions.
Additions:
• Additions due to unaccounted private supplies- from private wells, tube
wells
• Additions due to Infiltration (Groundwater, storm water drainage)
Subtractions:
• Subtractions due to water losses/leakage
• Subtractions due to water not entering the sewerage system-consumed for
drinking, cooking, gardening of lawns and gardens, industrial processes,
boilers for steam generation etc.
Net quantity of sewage produced (In India)= 75- 80% of water
supplied from the water works
64
Factors affecting Dry weather
Flow(DWF)
• Rate of water supply
• Population growth
• Type of area served
• Infiltration of ground water
65
Variation in wastewater flow
• Seasonal variation
• Daily variation
• Hourly variation
Hourly variation of sewage flow compared to that of water supply
66
Storm water flow
The surface run-off resulting after precipitation contributes to the
storm water. The quantity of storm water reaching to the sewers or
drains is very large as compared with sanitary sewage.
The factors affecting the quantity of storm water flow are as below:
i. Area of the catchment
ii. Slope and shape of the catchment area
iii. Porosity of the soil
iv. Obstruction in the flow of water as trees, fields, gardens, etc.
v. Initial state of catchment area with respect to wetness.
vi. Intensity and duration of rainfall
vii. Atmospheric temperature and humidity
67
Estimation of Quantity of Storm Water
1. Rational Method
2. Empirical Method
68
Rational formula
69
Co-efficient of run-off(K)
Critical rainfall Intensity in cm/hr(Pc)
T= Duration of storm in minutes (substitute T = Time of concentration Tc) 70
Rational Method
• Time of concentration ( Tc ):
• The period after which the entire area starts
contributing to the run-off .
• Defined as the time required by the water to
reach the outlet from the most remote point of
the discharge area.
• In other words, it is the time required for the
flood discharge to reach the maximum limit.
Tc = Ti+ Tf
71
Inlet Time ,Ti (Time of entry/ Overland flow time/Time of
equilibrium )
• The time taken by the water to flow overland from
critical point upto the point where it enters the drain
mouth.
• Time taken by the rainfall to run from the most distant
point of the watershed to the inlet of the sewer
• Time of entry decreases with increase in slope and
imperviousness of the ground
• Time of entry increases with distance and storage
conditions of the ground.
72
73
Empirical methods
[Link]’s formula
Generally used for North Indian catchments
QP = Peak Discharge in cumecs
M = Catchment area in Km2
C = a constant depending upon all those fifteen to
twenty factors which affect the runoff (C=11.5)
74
[Link]’s formula
Generally used for South Indian catchments
QP = Peak Discharge in cumecs
M = Catchment area in Km2
C = a constant depending upon fifteen to twenty factors
which affect the runoff (C=6.8)
75
[Link] formula
QP = Peak Discharge in cumecs
M = Catchment area in Km2
76
77
78
Types of Sewerage systems
1. Separate System:
• Drainage and sewage are taken independently of each
other through two different sets of conduits.
Advantages-
• Cost of installation is low
• Load on treatment plant will be lower
• Sewage is of uniform nature
• Rain water can be discharged into streams without
treatment
Disadvantages-
• It is difficult to clean smaller sewers
• They are likely to be choked
79
2. Combined System:
• Drainage is taken along with sewage.
• Provides only one sewer to carry both the foul sewage
as well as the rainwater.
• Sewage and rainwater carried to the sewage treatment
plant, before its final disposal.
Advantages- only one set of sewers required
• Strength of sewage is reduced by dilution
• Easy to clean the sewers due to large size
• Chances of foul smell is reduced
Disadvantages- cost of construction is high
• Handling and transportation of sewers is difficult
• Load on treatment plant is high
• Uneconomical if pumping is required
80
3. Partially Separate System:
• Sometimes a part of drainage water, especially
that originating from the roofs or paved
courtyard buildings is allowed to enter into
the sewers.
• The sewers admit the foul sewage and early
washings by rain
• Excess storm water is collected in open drains
and discharged into natural water bodies
81
POPULATION EQUIVALENT
•Indicates the strength of the industrial wastewater for estimating
treatment required at municipal sewage treatment plant.
•Industrial wastewaters are generally compared with per capita
domestic sewage, through the concept of Population equivalent
using per capita BOD value as the basis.
•Helps in assessing realistic charges for the treatment of industrial
wastewater instead of charging simply based on volume of sewage
• Population equivalent = Total BOD5 of the industrial
wastewater (kg/day) / BOD5 value(kg) per capita per day
• The average standard BOD5 of domestic sewage is worked out
to be 0.08 kg/day/person.
82
83
84
Pump design
• Water has to be supplied to a town with one lakh
population at the rate of 150 Lpcd from a river
2000m away. The difference in elevation
between the lowest water level in the sump and
the reservoir is 36m. If the demand has to be
supplied in 8 hrs, determine the size of the main
and the brake horse power (BHP) of the pumps
required. Assume maximum demand as 1.5
times the average demand. Assume f=0.0075,
velocity in the pipe=2.4m/s, efficiency of the
pump=80%
• Max. demand=1.5x100000x150=22.5x106 L/d
• Pump designed for demand=22.5x106 x24/8
• =67.5x106 L/d=0.781cumecs
• A=Q/V=0.781/2.4=0.325m2 dia.=0.65m
• Hs+Hd=36m
• Hf= (4f.L.V2)/(2gd)=
4x0.0075x2000x2.42/2x9.8x0.65=27.1m
• H=36+27.1=63.1m
• BHP=wQH/(75xE)=1000x0.781x63.1/75x0.8
=822 HP
87